Lore of the Victoria 3 universe: Main historical events

Butcher79

13 November, 2022

Victoria 3 covers world history from 1836 to 1936. A short period of time turned out to be full of events of an epochal scale. The era of political upheavals that redrawn the map of Europe and the whole world. Landmarks and values that seemed unshakable are shifting. Outstanding minds are born: musicians, artists, writers, poets, architects, scientists, politicians, and just crazy adventurers. This period still directly and indirectly affects our modern life. And you and I guys have the opportunity to plunge into this time, and to make diving into this amazing world more exciting, this guide was created.

I. Key events:

Victorian era 1837-1901

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As the name implies, this is the period of Victoria's reign.

As the name suggests, this is the reign of Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress of India.

The period for Great Britain is characterized by the collapse of the traditional way of life, the rapid development of science and no less rapid industrialization, the breaking of foundations and the change of artistic trends. The art of that time is characterized, along with realism and sentimentalism, by pronounced tendencies to escape from reality, the desire to hide from modernity, to recreate the world on their own, craving for nature in its most ideal and at the same time wild manifestations, romanticization of the Middle Ages and the East.

Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution in Britain led to a significant increase in the number of factories, warehouses, and shops. There was a rapid increase in population, which led to the growth of cities. In the 1850s, the whole of Britain was covered by a network of railroads, which greatly improved the position of industrialists, as it facilitated the delivery of goods and raw materials. Britain has become a highly productive country that has left other European states far behind. At the international industrial exhibition of 1851, the success of the country was appreciated, Britain deserved the title of "workshop of the world." The advanced positions in industrial production remained until the end of the XNUMXth - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. However, it was not without negative aspects. Unsanitary conditions were characteristic of the working quarters of industrial cities. Child labor was ubiquitous, and low wages were combined with poor working conditions and exhausting long hours.

Despite the significant success of Britain during this period, the Victorian era was also a period of doubt and disappointment. This was due to the fact that the progress of science undermined faith in the inviolability of biblical truths. At the same time, there was no significant growth of atheists, and atheism itself still remained an unacceptable system of views for society and the church. Thus, for example, the famous political figure who advocated social reforms and freedom of thought, Charles Bradlow, who became famous among other things for his militant atheism, was able to get a seat in the House of Commons only in 1880 after a series of unsuccessful attempts.

Based on the foregoing, it can be concluded that England experienced an undoubted surge of interest in science, which resulted in a number of large-scale scientific discoveries, but at the same time the country itself remained quite conservative in terms of lifestyle and value system. The rapid development of Britain from an agrarian state to an industrial state led to the rapid growth of cities and the emergence of new jobs, but did not alleviate the situation of the workers and their living conditions.

colonial possessions.

The Victorian era for Britain was marked by the expansion of colonial possessions. True, the loss of the American colonies led to the fact that the idea of new conquests in this area was not very popular. Until 1840, Britain did not seek new colonies, but was engaged in protecting its trade routes and supporting its interests outside the state. At that time, one of the black pages of British history falls - the opium wars with China, which were caused by the struggle for the right to sell Indian opium in China.

Problems haunted Britain not only overseas, but also on its own territory. They mainly came from Scotland and Ireland. At the same time, for example, the population of Wales quadrupled over the 2th century and amounted to 1870 million people. Wales boasted rich coal deposits in the south, making it the center of a booming coal mining and iron and steel industry. This resulted in almost two-thirds of the country's population seeking to move south in search of work. By 300, Wales had become an industrial country, although there were significant areas in the north where farming flourished, and most of the inhabitants were poor peasants. The reforms of Parliament allowed the people of Wales to get rid of the families of wealthy landowners who had represented them in Parliament for XNUMX years.

Risorgimento. Unification of Italy in 1829-1871

Risorgimento as a historiographical term.

Risorgimento is a historiographic term denoting the national liberation movement of the Italian people against foreign domination, for the unification of fragmented Italy, as well as the period when this movement took place (mid-1861th century - 1870); The Risorgimento ended in XNUMX with the annexation of Rome to the Kingdom of Italy.

Background of the Risorgimento

In the 1830s and 1850s, Italy was an economically backward and politically fragmented, agrarian country burdened with many feudal vestiges. Industry weakened, squeezed within small states fenced off from each other by political and customs borders, and only in the 1840s, in the most economically developed regions of northern Italy, did it enter the stage of an industrial revolution. Feudal vestiges were strong in agriculture.

Naturally, the Italians were not satisfied with this situation, as well as the semi-feudal remnants that remained in almost all areas. In the states located on the territory of modern Italy, a socio-political crisis was brewing.

Influence of the "Spring of Nations" revolution of 1848-1849.

The revolutionary fire has already engulfed the territory of France, Germany and the Austrian Empire. For the revolution to spread to Italian lands, only a small spark was enough - it was the riots in Vienna. Sensing the weakness of their European oppressor, the Austrian Empire, the northern Italian states took decisive action. The scene of the main events was the territory of the Lombardo-Venetian region.

Captured at the end of the 18th century by the Austro-French troops, the Venetian Republic was again proclaimed independent precisely at the beginning of the first war of independence. Then Milan was covered with barricades, whose citizens forced the Austrian generals to flee from the city. King Charles Albert of Piedmont, inspired by the idea of creating a northern Italian kingdom, supported the uprising. So the Italian states for the first time united in the liberation struggle. However, political disagreements among the rulers did not allow the success of the revolution to develop.

Union of Piedmont with France and the development of the national movement

One of the objectives of the foreign policy of Napoleon III was to oust Austria from Italy and create the Kingdom of Upper Italy, completely dependent on France. For this, Napoleon III concluded an alliance with the same Piedmont. On April 26, a hundred thousandth army of the kingdom of Piedmont and a two hundred thousandth French army opposed the Austrian troops in a united front. Already at this time, the future national hero of Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi, was rampaging on the battlefields. With his "Alpine Jaegers" Garibaldi successfully defeated the regular troops of the Austrians. The victories of the allies ensured the rise of the national movement in central Italy, the rulers and dukes fled in fear from their possessions, and power passed to the Piedmontese officials.

At the peak of the liberation struggle of the Italian people, the French emperor Napoleon III, realizing that under such conditions the creation of a puppet state was impossible, concluded a secret peace with Austria. Without warning, French troops retreated from the front. The Villafranca truce, which offended the Italian people, nevertheless forced them to curtail hostilities in a hurry and make concessions. Successes as a result of the war were insignificant.

Garibaldian thousand

In April 1860, that is, almost immediately after the unsuccessful attempt at unification, a new uprising broke out in the Sicilian Palermo. The uprising in the city failed, the army was able to suppress it. Then the unrest moved from the city to the countryside. The authorities believed that this would be another not particularly active outbreak of discontent. This would probably have been the case if Garibaldi had not come to the aid of the rebels with a small detachment of his associates. For his fighters, Garibaldi could only get a thousand old, practically unusable guns. "Thousand" Garibaldi - and these are artisans, workers, petty bourgeois and intellectuals from all over Italy - on two ships set off from Genoa to the south, to Sicily. Thus began the legendary Garibaldi epic.

The detachment was supposed to defeat the 25th army, located on the island. Much depended on the first battle. The Garibaldians, dressed in red shirts, with faulty guns, in the first battle rushed into a bayonet attack, defeating the three thousandth corps of the Bourbon troops. Then Garibaldi, having made an incredible maneuver and taking local peasants into his detachment, broke into Palermo and took the city by storm. Supported by the people, Garibaldi was able to completely liberate Sicily.

But he was not the right person to stop there - Garibaldi landed in southern Italy and continued the liberation campaign. Soldiers who had heard about the fury of the Garibaldi expedition surrendered before the battle. The Bourbon regime was collapsing before our eyes, Garibaldi, 20 days after his invasion of southern Italy, entered the jubilant Naples. The commander set his sights on Rome, but the initiators of his own campaign opposed him. Naples and Sicily joined the Sardinian kingdom, and Garibaldi, refusing all awards, left for his small island. Thus, by the end of 1860, Italy was effectively unified.

Spring of peoples. Revolutions of 1848-1849

Spring of peoples. - European revolutions of 1848-1849

European revolutions of 1848-1849 - the general name of the revolutionary events, expressed in the form of disobedience to the authorities, armed uprisings, declaring new statehood in European countries at the end of the first half of the XNUMXth century. The movements that broke out at once in several states were of an anti-feudal and national liberation character. The participants in the speeches declared the demands for the democratization of public life.

BACKGROUND

The revolutions of 1848-1849 cannot be regarded as the result of a consistent development or a set of social phenomena, because they are caused by numerous and heterogeneous causes. During the first half of the 1846th century, many important changes took place in European society. Liberal reformers and radical politicians completely changed the composition of national governments. The development of technology has revolutionized the life of the working class. The press increased political awareness, and new values and ideas began to emerge, such as popular liberalism, nationalism, and socialism. Some historians also emphasize severe crop failures, especially the crop failure of 1846, which caused the impoverishment of the peasantry and the urban proletariat. The nobility was dissatisfied with the complete or practical absolutism of the state system. For example, in XNUMX in Austrian Galicia there was an uprising of the Polish nobility, which was suppressed only when the peasants, in turn, rebelled against the nobles.

Thus, the desire for reform united both the middle and working classes, but although they had similar goals, their participation in the revolutions differed. Although the main initiative came from the middle class, the lower strata of the population were the driving force behind the performances. The first uprisings began to take place in the cities.

Events by country:

1. Italian States

The first major outbreak of protest took place in Sicily in January 1848, although the event initially went unnoticed by the European public. Not long before this, there had already been several revolts in Sicily against the rule of the Bourbons; in January 1848, this led to the emergence of an independent state. This state lasted only 16 months, after which the Bourbons returned to power. The constitution adopted in those months was progressive for its time: it was drawn up in liberal-democratic terms. It was also proposed to create a confederation of Italian states. 12 years later, the defeat of the revolution was reversed when, in 1860-1862, the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies fell.

2. France

The "February Revolution" in France began with the suppression of reformist banquets. This revolution was caused by the nationalistic and republican ideals of the French public, which believed that the people themselves should manage their country. This revolution ended Louis Philippe's constitutional monarchy and led to the creation of the Second French Republic. The new government was headed by Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, who staged a coup d'état in 1852 and became Emperor of the Second French Empire.

Alexis de Tocqueville, in his memoirs of that time, noted: “Society was divided into two parts: those who had nothing were united by a common envy, and those who had something were united by a common fear.”

3. German ConfederationThe "March Revolution" in the German states swept the south and west of Germany. It was accompanied by large popular gatherings and mass demonstrations. The protesters, led by well-educated students and intellectuals, demanded German national unity, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly. The speeches were poorly coordinated, but they were united by the rejection of traditional autocratic political structures in the 39 independent states of the German Confederation. In the end, the middle and working classes driving the revolution were divided, and the conservative aristocracy managed to prevail. Many leaders of the revolution were expelled from the country.

4 Denmark

Since the 1848th century, an absolute monarchy has been established in Denmark. King Christian VIII, a moderate reformer but still an absolutist, died in January 21 at a time of growing opposition from farmers and liberals. The National Liberals demanded a transition to a constitutional monarchy. These demands culminated in a popular march towards Christiansborg on XNUMX March. The new King Frederick VII satisfied the demands of the Liberals and formed a new government, which included prominent leaders of the National Liberal Party.

The National Liberal Movement wanted to abolish absolutism but retain a strong centralized state. The king adopted a new constitution, agreeing to share power with a bicameral parliament called the Rigsdag. It is said that the first words of the Danish king after signing the document, where he renounced absolute power, were: "Great, now I can sleep in the morning." Although the army officers were not happy with the changes, they accepted the new order, which, unlike the rest of Europe, was not overturned by the reactionaries. The liberal constitution did not apply to Schleswig, leaving the Schleswig-Holstein question unanswered.

5. Romanian principalities

In June, an uprising of Romanian liberals and nationalists began in the principality of Wallachia. Its goals were administrative autonomy, the abolition of serfdom and popular self-determination. It was closely connected with the unsuccessful uprising of 1848 in Moldavia, the goals of which were to overthrow the administration introduced by the Russian imperial authorities under the Organic Regulations and the abolition of boyar privileges. Led by a group of young intellectuals and officers of the Wallachian armed forces, the uprising succeeded in overthrowing the ruling Prince George Bibescu, who was replaced by a provisional government and regent, and in a series of major liberal reforms.

Despite the rapid success and support of the population, there were significant differences between its radical and more conservative wings, especially on the issue of land reform. Two successive failed coups weakened the new government, and its international status was constantly challenged by the Russian Empire. Although the revolution managed to win sympathy from the Ottoman Empire, it was eventually isolated due to the intervention of Russian diplomats. In September 1848, in agreement with the Ottomans, Russia invaded Wallachia and crushed the revolution. According to Vasile Machu, the failures in Wallachia were associated with foreign intervention, in Moldavia with the opposition of the feudal lords, and in Transylvania with the failure of the campaign of General Józef Bem and subsequent Austrian repressions. In the following decades, the rebels were still able to achieve their goals.

Opium Wars

Opium wars - military conflicts in China

The Opium Wars were military conflicts in China in the XNUMXth century between Western powers and the Qing Empire. One of the main reasons for the hostilities was disagreements about trade with China, primarily opium, from which the wars got their name.
The Opium Wars involve two conflicts:

The first opium war - the war of 1840-1842;
The Second Opium War was the War of 1856-1860.

The first opium war was the war of 1840-1842.

The first Opium War of 1840-1842 was fought between Great Britain and the Qing Empire. The prerequisite for the war was the imbalance of the trade balance between these countries in favor of China, the cause of which was the Chinese policy of protecting the empire from foreign influence. A commodity that was in demand in China and could equalize the trade balance, bringing huge profits to the British, was opium, but its sale was prohibited by imperial decrees.

The basis of British tactics was fleet maneuver, bombardment of coastal fortifications, rapid landings supported by the fleet, and blockade of ports and waterways. The Qing Empire defended the fortresses using numerous, albeit outdated, artillery, set up barriers on the rivers, and organized firewall attacks by English ships. During the war, the British troops demonstrated the significant superiority of their fleet and artillery, high maneuverability and organization. The Chinese troops, including the elite Manchu detachments, were unable to offer serious resistance, which was caused by insufficient possession of artillery (especially field artillery), the weakness of combined arms training, and the low morale of the army. Most of the major battles of the war took place with relatively few British casualties in killed and wounded, but the latter suffered more significant losses from the hot climate and tropical diseases.

At the end of the summer of 1840, English ships were in the immediate vicinity of Beijing. The frightened Emperor Daoguang agreed to negotiations and accepted the terms of the British, who returned the ships to the south. But in December 1840, the emperor changed his mind and moved new forces against the British. British troops struck back, and the governor, against the will of the emperor, complied with British demands, including transferring the island of Hong Kong to the English crown. The fighting continued until May 1841, when a truce was concluded after the defeat of the Chinese fleet.

In August 1841, Great Britain sent a new expeditionary force to China, which launched a new offensive. After wintering in the captured cities of Zhenhai and Ningbo, they repelled a Chinese counteroffensive in March 1842 and continued their offensive. At the same time, US and French military squadrons appeared in Chinese waters. On August 29, 1842, after decisive victories and reaching Nanjing, Great Britain imposed the Nanking Treaty, which was beneficial for itself, on the Qing Empire.

Under the treaty, the Qing Empire paid a large indemnity to Great Britain, handed over the island of Hong Kong and opened Chinese ports for English trade. The English crown received a gigantic source of income from the sale of opium. In the Qing Empire, a long period of weakening of the state and civil unrest began, which led to the enslavement of the country by the European powers and the gigantic spread of drug addiction, degradation and mass extinction of the population.

The Second Opium War was the War of 1856-1860.

The second Opium War of 1856-1860 was fought by Britain and France against the Qing Empire. England tried to open the way to the interior provinces of China, to seize its river ports. In 1851, a civil war began in China: on the territory of the Qing Empire, the Taiping state, hostile to the Manchu government, appeared, which foreign merchants and missionaries used to fight the empire with the formal neutrality of Western states.

However, in 1854, Great Britain, France and the USA tried to revise the treaties of 1841-42, demanded the right of unlimited trade throughout China and official permission to trade in opium, but political intrigues did not lead to the desired result. Therefore, after the end of the Crimean War in October 1856, Great Britain unleashed a new war in China. France soon joined England. Russia, in exchange for territorial concessions, provided military assistance to the Qing Empire. In December 1857, Anglo-French troops surrounded the city of Canton and demanded the signing of an agreement on difficult conditions for China. The Chinese government did not accept these demands. Then the Anglo-French troops captured and destroyed the city. In 1860, the combined Anglo-French army inflicted a decisive defeat on the Manchurian-Mongolian troops and began to threaten Beijing.

On October 24-25, 1860, the Beijing Treaties were signed, according to which the Qing Empire paid a large indemnity, opened up Tianjin for foreign trade, allowed the use of the Chinese as a virtual slave labor force in the colonies of Great Britain and France. From that moment on, the southern part of the Kowloon Peninsula passed to Great Britain, and Russia received the Ussuri Territory. Moreover, the latter did not formally belong to China, being a hereditary reserve of the Manchu dynasty, which had the right to dispose of it at its discretion and limited the Chinese settlement of this territory during the previous two centuries.

Anglo-Afghan Wars

Anglo-Afghan wars - Great Britain against Afghanistan.

The Anglo-Afghan Wars are a series of British colonial wars against Afghanistan.

Anglo-Afghan wars include:

First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842)
Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880)
Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)

First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842).

The original reason that forced England to enter into relations with Afghanistan already in 1808 was Napoleon's plans to seize British India. In 1807, the Franco-Iranian alliance was signed, allowing France to lead its troops through Iran in order to capture India, so the British East India Company had to take retaliatory action.

The British army intervened in the conflict between Emir Dost Mohammed and Emir Shuja Shah, entered Afghanistan and occupied Kabul in August 1839. Two years later, the Afghans revolted, which forced the British army to leave Kabul, but it was completely destroyed during the retreat in January 1842. The Afghans laid siege to the British detachments in Jalalabad. The British army re-invaded, lifted the siege of Jalalabad, and left Afghanistan at the end of 1842. Dost Muhammad returned from exile and again became the Emir of Afghanistan.

The war cost Great Britain more than 18 thousand lives, 25 million pounds sterling and significantly undermined the prestige of the British army, while strengthening its presence in Central Asia.

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880).

The British Empire's war to control Afghanistan from 1878 to 1880. As in the first Anglo-Afghan war of 1838-1842, the British launched an invasion of Afghanistan due to dissatisfaction with its orientation towards Russia. In 1878-1879, the Anglo-Indian troops under the command of Major General Frederick Roberts, having defeated the Afghan army in several battles, captured Jalalabad, Kandahar and the Shutagardan pass. Having suffered a defeat, Emir Shir-Ali, leaving power to his son Yakub Khan, fled in 1878 to Russian possessions.

The result of the war was the establishment of friendly relations with Afghanistan and the accession to the British possessions of the Pishin district. At the same time, relations with many border Afghan tribes were damaged, which gave rise to long-term border problems.

Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919).

The armed struggle of Afghanistan against the British Indian Army in defense of the country's proclaimed independence from foreign interference. Britain's attempt to subjugate Afghanistan by force ended in failure.

On February 21, 1919, Amanullah Khan ascended the emir throne in Afghanistan. Supported by the army and the radical Young Afghan party, he announced the elimination of the country's political dependence on Great Britain. On May 3, the Anglo-Indian army invaded the country in the Khyber, Waziristan and Kandahar directions, in response, Amanullah Khan declared jihad on them. But the 50-strong Afghan army was unable to stop their offensive and was already defeated on May 5. Only the next day in Kabul did they receive a note from Great Britain with an official declaration of war. British planes bombed Jalalabad and Kabul. The border Afghan tribes revolted against the British, and at the same time, the national liberation movement intensified in India. On June 3, a truce was concluded between the British and Afghan troops. On August 8, 1919, in Rawalpindi (British India), a preliminary peace treaty was signed between Great Britain and Afghanistan, according to which the latter was given independence in foreign policy.

Caucasian War 1817-1864

Caucasian War - a generalized name for the annexation of the Caucasus

The Caucasian War (1817-1864) is a generalizing name for the military operations of the Russian Imperial Army, connected with the annexation of the North Caucasus to the Russian Empire, and its military confrontation with the North Caucasian Imamate.

Causes and prerequisites of war

Active exploration of the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia by the Russian Empire began in the XNUMXth century. The main rivals of Russia in this direction were Persia and the Ottoman Empire. The conquest of the North Caucasus and the inclusion of this territory into the country was a strategically important task facing our emperors in the XNUMXth century. The North Caucasus was a bridge in Transcaucasia, where from the beginning of the XNUMXth century. there was already a permanent presence of Russia.

The conquest of the North Caucasus made it possible to unite the entire Caucasian region under Russian rule. Tribes of various nationalities, the highlanders, have long lived here. Due to the fact that the mountainous terrain did not allow active farming, the main occupation of the male population was robberies and raids. Especially often the highlanders made raids on Georgian lands.

After the annexation of Georgia to Russia, these raids did not stop. The most hostile highlanders from the highlands did not recognize the annexation of their territory to Russia and continued predatory raids. So Russia was forced to constantly defend itself. However, defense and retaliatory operations were difficult, since the mountainous terrain created a natural barrier to military success.

In addition, the Caucasus becomes the object of not only Russian-Iranian-Turkish, but also sharp Anglo-French-Russian disagreements. In the politics of the opposing powers, a special place was occupied by the so-called "Circassian issue", which was understood as the struggle of Russia, Turkey and England for political priority in the northwestern part of the Caucasus. Hence the desire of the European powers to involve the mountain peoples in the military conflicts that took place in the XNUMXth century in the East.

In 1817, the long Caucasian War began, which cost Russia many forces and ended only in 1864. The war began under Alexander I, covered the entire period of the reign of Nicholas I and was ended by Alexander II.

It must be admitted that despite the agreements on the annexation of the North Caucasus with the heads of local noble families (teips), the power of the Russian Empire in this region, even after the Napoleonic Wars, was very conditional. Alexander I did not approve of the harsh methods of conquering the Caucasian peoples.

Periodization and the course of the Caucasian War

The Caucasian war conditionally breaks up into five main periods.

At the first stage (1817–1827) the gradual advance of Russian troops deep into the North Caucasus begins. In 1816, a separate Caucasian Corps of Troops was formed under the command of General Alexei Petrovich Yermolov. He developed a plan for military and administrative activities in the Caucasus.

Yermolov pursued a tough policy of ousting the recalcitrant highlanders from the fertile valleys in the highlands. To this end, the construction of the Sunzhenskaya line began, separating the granary of Chechnya from the mountainous regions. In 1818, the fortress of Groznaya was founded, and after it other fortresses (Pregradny Stan, Sudden) along the rivers Sunzha, Terek, Kuban, in which Cossacks settled and regular troops were quartered. In 1821, the Burnaya fortress was built, covering the southern regions and the Caspian coast of Dagestan. This caused a wave of protest, which further intensified the guerrilla warfare and further aggravated the conflict. Moreover, in addition to Russian soldiers, the local population was involved in the construction of fortresses and roads, for whom the construction of a fortified line was a heavy duty.

Russian troops encountered the most serious resistance in the highlands of Chechnya and Dagestan.

In the same period, a religious doctrine, muridism, began to spread in the Caucasus. Muridism demanded from its supporters unquestioning lifelong participation in the sacred struggle against the infidels (non-Muslims) - ghazawat. The first preacher of Muridism and the leader of the Gazavat in the North Caucasus was Mullah Mohammed, better known as Kazi-Mullah.

The policy of the Ottoman Empire and England also influenced the course of events, especially on the northwestern coast of the Caucasus, where Ottoman smugglers and English agents penetrated, inciting the highlanders to resist. British emissaries organized the supply of weapons from Trebizond and Samsun to Circassia.

In the second stage in 1827-1834 in the North Caucasus, a theocratic state was formed - an imamate, the first imam (ruler) of which in 1828 was Gazi-Magomed. He sought to unite the peoples of Dagestan and Chechnya to fight the "infidels." In 1831, his troops occupied the villages of Paraul and Tarki, but failed in the assault on the fortress of Burnaya, raided the cities of Derbent and Kizlyar. In 1832, Gazi-Magomed was defeated near Vladikavkaz and Nazran, as a result of which the popularity of the imam among the mountain communities fell, which forced him to retreat to the mountainous part of Dagestan.

In October 1832, the army of Gazi-Magomed was blocked in the village of Gimry by a detachment of the Russian army, and as a result of a fierce assault, the imam was killed.

In the third stage (1834–1855) the war entered its most intense phase. The highlanders' movement was led by Imam Shamil (1797–1871), who won a number of major victories over the tsarist troops. In 1835-1836. the Russian authorities are holding unsuccessful negotiations with the highlanders. The unsuccessful campaigns organized in 1837 deep into Chechnya led to a counteroffensive of the highlanders.

In September 1837, after visiting the Caucasus, Nicholas I, extremely dissatisfied with the state of affairs, appointed a new commander-in-chief of the troops in the North Caucasus, General Evgeny Aleksandrovich Golovin.

In 1839, a large-scale military operation was undertaken, as a result of which Shamil's stronghold aul ♥♥♥♥♥♥♥♥♥♥♥♥♥♥ was taken. The storming of the aul was depicted on a 12-meter panorama of the famous battle painter Franz Roubaud, which has survived only in fragments. Shamil runs to the mountains. The Russian government has the false impression that the North Caucasus has fallen.

Fourth stage The Caucasian War (1855-1859) is associated with the victory of Russian troops over the remnants of the mountain forces and the capture of Imam Shamil.

In 1856, Emperor Alexander II appointed Prince Alexander Ivanovich Baryatinsky as commander-in-chief of the Separate Caucasian Corps and viceroy. He returned to the plan of continuous and methodical advance deep into the Caucasus. The troops under the command of Baryatinsky launched a series of swift attacks on the territory of Greater Chechnya, as a result of which the villages of Avtury, Geldygen, Seid-Yurt were taken, and farms with stocks of bread and hay were also captured. As a result of these expeditions, part of the highlanders of Chechnya went over to the side of the Russian Empire.

In April 1859, the troops of General Evdokimov took the new capital of Shamil, the village of Vedeno, and destroyed it. In the summer, after a long and stubborn resistance, Shamil was surrounded in the village of Gunib and surrendered. He was settled with his family in Kaluga. With the permission of the Russian authorities, he made a pilgrimage to Mecca, then to Medina, where he died in 1871.

At the fifth stage (1859–1864), the imperial troops occupied the entire territory along the northern slope of the Caucasus Range, and in May 1864 they stormed the Kbaada tract (now Krasnaya Polyana) - the last center of resistance of the highlanders. The military parade of Russian troops, which took place there, is considered to be the moment of the end of the Caucasian War. The last centers of resistance of the Circassians, Abkhazians and Adyghes in Western Circassia were liquidated. The Russian Empire was able to suppress the armed resistance of the Caucasian peoples.

California Gold Rush

Gold rush - unorganized mass mining of gold.

The California Gold Rush is an unorganized mass gold mining in California in 1848-1855. The gold rush began on January 24, 1848, when James W. Marshall discovered gold near Sutter's sawmill, owned by California entrepreneur John Sutter, on the American River. As soon as the news of the discovery spread, about 300 people arrived in California from other states in the United States and from abroad.

The first gold miners, who became known as "forty-niners", traveled to California on sailing ships, in boxcars from all over the continent, often encountering significant difficulties along the way. The gold rush also attracted tens of thousands of seekers from Latin America, Europe, Australia and Asia. Gold worth several billions of today's dollars was discovered, which led to the emergence of many nouveaux riches among the miners. Others, however, returned home empty-handed.

The consequences of the gold rush were numerous. In just a few years, San Francisco grew from a small settlement to a large city, roads, schools, hospitals and churches were built in California. A system of laws was created, and in 1850 California officially became a US state, now often referred to as the "Golden State". The agricultural sector has grown and developed rapidly. However, the gold rush in California also has a number of negative consequences, including the displacement of Indians from their traditional lands and damage to the environment.

Mexican-American War 1846-1848

The Mexican-American War is a conflict between the United States and Mexico.

Mexican-American War - military conflict between the United States and Mexico in 1846-1848. In Mexico, the war is called the United States Intervention. In the US, the war is known as the Mexican War.

Reason for the war.

The war was the result of territorial disputes between Mexico and the United States following the annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845. Although Texas declared its independence from Mexico back in 1836, the Texans defended it with arms in their hands and achieved international recognition, the Mexican government consistently refused to recognize the independence of Texas, continuing to view it as its rebellious territory.

The course of hostilities

Officially, the United States declared war on Mexico only 2 months after the start of hostilities on Mexican territory. The offensive of the American troops encountered stubborn resistance from the Mexican army and the actions of partisan detachments. The lack of funds for the war prompted the Mexican government to confiscate some of the wealth of the Catholic Church, which caused an outbreak of riots. The civil strife in Mexico made the task of the United States much easier. In March 1847, the landing force captured the main port of Mexico - Veracruz, and in August, after bloody battles, the capital of Mexico fell.

Results of the war

The most important consequences of the war were the extensive territorial losses of Mexico, which amounted to about 55% of the state territory, as a result of which the United States was given Upper California and New Mexico - the lands of the modern states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and Utah.

Crimean War 1853-1856

The Crimean War is a war between the Russian Empire and the coalition.

The Crimean War is a war between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia, on the other. In Russia itself, until the beginning of the XNUMXth century, the “French” name “Eastern War” was used, as well as the “Turkish War”, until the commonly used designation “Crimean War” was adopted. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danubian principalities, in the Baltic, Black, Azov, White and Barents Seas, as well as in the lower reaches of the Amur, in Kamchatka and the Kuriles. They reached the greatest tension in the Crimea, so in Russia the war was called "Crimean".

Immediate causes of war

The prelude to war was the conflict between Nicholas I and Napoleon III, who came to power in France after the coup on December 2, 1851. Nicholas I considered the new French emperor illegitimate, since the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from the French throne by the Congress of Vienna. To demonstrate his position, Nicholas I in a congratulatory telegram turned to Napoleon III "Monsieur mon ami" ("dear friend"), instead of the permissible according to the protocol "Monsieur mon frère" ("dear brother"). Such liberties were regarded as a public insult to the new French emperor.

Realizing the fragility of his power, Napoleon III wanted to divert the attention of the French by the then popular idea of war against Russia and at the same time satisfy the feeling of personal irritation against Emperor Nicholas I. Having come to power with the support of the Catholic Church, Napoleon III sought to repay his ally by protecting the interests of the Vatican on international arena, in particular in the issue of control over the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which led to a conflict with the Orthodox Church and, directly, with Russia. At the same time, the French referred to the agreement with the Ottoman Empire of 1740, which gives France the right to control Christian holy places in Palestine, and Russia - to the Sultan's decree of 1757, which restored the rights of the Orthodox Church in Palestine, and the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty of 1774 , which gave Russia the right to protect the interests of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

France demanded that the keys to the church, which at that time belonged to the Orthodox community, be given to the Catholic clergy. Russia, however, insisted that the keys remain with the Orthodox community. Both sides backed up their words with threats. The Ottomans, unable to refuse, promised to fulfill both French and Russian demands. When this ruse, typical of Ottoman diplomacy, was discovered, in the late summer of 1852, France, in violation of the London Convention on the Status of the Straits of July 13, 1841, brought the 80-gun ship of the line "Charlemagne" under the walls of Istanbul. In early December 1852, the keys to the Church of the Nativity were handed over to France. In response, Russian Chancellor Nesselrode, on behalf of Nicholas I, stated that Russia "will not tolerate the insult received from the Ottoman Empire ... vis pacem, para bellum!" The concentration of the Russian army began on the border with Moldova and Wallachia.

Nicholas I counted on the support of Prussia and Austria and considered an alliance between Britain and France impossible. However, the British Prime Minister Aberdeen, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed with the French Emperor Napoleon III on joint actions against Russia.

Trying to use the favorable opportunity to "teach" Russia through the hands of the Western allies, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul-Mejid I on September 27 demanded the cleansing of the Danubian principalities within two weeks, and after Russia did not fulfill this condition, on October 4, 1853 declared war on Russia. On October 20, Russia responded with a similar statement.

In historiography, the incident with holy places is often considered only a pretext for the outbreak of hostilities, but there is also a point of view according to which it was the religious issue and the position of the church that prompted the Russian emperor to escalate the conflict.

Results of the war

Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities seized from it.
The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military courts in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have military fleets and arsenals there.
Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia was annexed to Moldova, and the Danube Delta to the Ottoman Empire.
Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and the exclusive patronage of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire, granted to it by the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskoy world 1774 year.
Russia pledged not to erect fortifications on the Åland Islands.

During the war, the participants in the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet for 15 years.

The representative of England, the Earl of Clarendon, demanded the disarmament of the city of Nikolaev and the destruction of its shipyards in accordance with the peace treaty. However, Orlov said that Nikolaev was not on the Black Sea, but on the Bug River, and the terms of the contract did not apply to him. During the negotiations, the issue of Russian forts on the eastern coast of the Black Sea was raised. Some of them were blown up during the war, and Clarendon stated that the forts are, in fact, the same arsenals, only they are called differently. Consequently, Russia has no right to restore them. Orlov did not agree with him: in his opinion, the fort and the arsenal are different things.

In 1856, at the conclusion of the Paris Peace Treaty, the Paris Declaration on the Law of the Sea was also adopted and signed, legally putting an end to maritime privateering.

Sepoy uprising 1857-1859

Sepoy Rebellion - First Indian War of Independence

Sepoy Rebellion (Sepoy Rebellion, in modern historiography Indian popular uprising of 1857-1859, the First Indian War of Independence) is an uprising of Indian soldiers against the colonial policy of the British in 1857-1859. The rebellion began in the north from Bengal to the Punjab and in central India.

BACKGROUND

The reason for the uprising was the new Enfield rifle with a primer lock. A rumor was circulated that the packaging of cartridges was allegedly soaked in a mixture of beef and pork fat (cow was a sacred animal in Hinduism, and a pig was unclean in Islam). Although the units of the sepoys were deliberately recruited on a mixed basis, this did not prevent the conspiracy of the Hindus and Muslims. There were also "predictions" that "the East India Company would rule for 100 years" (beginning with the Battle of Plassey, 1757) and that "everything would turn crimson".

The course of the uprising

Serious unrest began in the city of Mirut at the end of April. There, for the first time, several Englishmen were killed. In May, the rebels penetrated Delhi, and then Auda and Kanpur became the centers of the uprising. They brutally massacred the entire British population, soldiers and civilians. The speech covered the territory between the Punjab and Bengal, information about the uprising spread quickly thanks to the telegraph.
Already in 1857, a split began among the rebels, disagreements arose because of religion and because of the desire of some nationalities for their own state. The Aga Khan's Ismaili Muslims, as well as the Sikhs and Pashtuns, supported the British.
To suppress the uprising, the British transferred forces from Singapore and Persia, mobilized loyal Gurkhas and various native units. The main battle unfolded for Delhi. The city was taken by September 21, 1857. Further, the British suppressed the scattered centers of the uprising in the Punjab and Bengal.

Aftermath

Despite the defeat of the uprising, the British colonialists were forced to change their policy. As early as August 2, 1858, the British Parliament passed a law on the liquidation of the East India Company and the transfer of control of India to England, and thus all the inhabitants became subjects of the English Queen Victoria (later taking the title of Empress of India). The colonizers made the Indian princes and landowners their allies, passing a series of laws that secured their rights of feudal ownership of land. At the same time, the colonial authorities had to take into account the enormous discontent of the peasants and issue laws on rent, which somewhat limited the feudal arbitrariness of the zamindars.

The rebellion ended the power of the British East India Company and led to its replacement by direct rule of the English crown (the "British Raj"). The uprising left a big mark on the culture and public consciousness both in Great Britain (including Arthur Conan Doyle's "The Sign of the Four" and Charles Dickens' ultra-racist statements) and abroad (especially in France), where certain circles spoke in favor of an alliance with the Russian Empire in order to driving the British out of Asia.

American Civil War 1861-1865

American Civil War - conflict between the US states

The American Civil War is a civil war of 1861-1865 between the Union of 20 states and 4 border slave states of the North, remaining in the Union, on the one hand, and the Confederation of 11 slave states of the South, on the other. During the war, about 2 thousand small and large battles took place. More US citizens died in this war than in any other war in which the US participated, including World War II.

The causes of the war

The North needed raw materials from the South, especially cotton, and the South needed the machines of the North. Therefore, for a long time, two different economic regions coexisted peacefully. Gradually, however, contradictions grew between them. Among the most acute conflict issues are the following:

Taxes on imported goods.
The difference is in understanding the further development of the country.
The question of the extension of slavery to new states.
The disagreement of the South with the policy of settling unoccupied lands in the west of the continent.

Fighting

First stage of the war (1861-1863)
The fighting began on April 12, 1861, with the Confederate capture of Fort Sumter in South Carolina. Its garrison remained loyal to the federal government and refused to capitulate, but after a 34-hour shelling was forced to surrender.

In response, Lincoln declared the Southern states in revolt and began calling for volunteers, and later introduced conscription. Similar actions were taken in the South.

The first major battle took place in Virginia. On July 18, the Federation army crossed the border at the Bull Run River, but was defeated by Confederate troops. The poorly trained Northerners took to flight. If the Southerners had pursued them and marched on Washington, the history of America could have turned out differently. However, the Confederation did not set the task of conquering the North, because the army of the South remained on the border. By the autumn, the commander-in-chief of the federal army, George McClellan, had raised a large army to invade Virginia, but he too was defeated.

In 1862, the army of the North achieved success in the west of the country: at the cost of many lives, they managed to drive the Southerners out of Kentucky, occupy the states of Tennessee and Missouri, and then invade the northern regions of Alabama and Mississippi.

In the same spring, the world's first battle of armored ships took place. The Confederate-built ironclad Virginia attempted to break the naval blockade by destroying several of the Federation's wooden ships, but ran into a rival battleship, the Monitor. Their battle lasted more than three hours, but the ships were unable to destroy each other. Nevertheless, this episode made a revolution in naval affairs, proving to the whole world the superiority of a steel fleet over a wooden one.
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In the early summer of 1862, on the eastern front, McClellan, nicknamed the "slower" for his indecisive actions, was removed from his post as commander in chief and sent with an army to storm Richmond, the capital of the Confederation. He had a 100-strong army at his disposal, but even such a force was not enough to take the fortifications erected on the approaches to the city by General Li. In the battle that went down in history as the Seven Days Battle (June 25 - July 1), both armies suffered enormous losses: about 2 thousand killed and 8 thousand wounded among the Northerners and almost 3,5 thousand killed and 16 thousand wounded among the Southerners.

The troops of General Lee managed not only to defend Rimchond, but also to launch a counteroffensive. On September 17, 1862, McClellan's army of 75 blocked their path at Antietam Creek. The Battle of Antietam became the bloodiest day in all the years of the American Civil War - about 3,6 thousand people died on both sides of the front in one day. The battle ended in a virtual draw, but the Southerners retreated.

Lincoln demanded a decisive counterattack from McClellan, but the slow general was in no hurry to act and was dismissed. The new commander, Ambrose Burnside, launched an offensive against Richmond only in December 1862, but was also defeated by General Lee and removed from command.

The first stage of the war was unsuccessful for the Northerners. Despite being outnumbered, they failed to break the defenses of the South.

The authority of Lincoln, who still hoped to solve the problem without unnecessary bloodshed, began to decline - he was condemned for indecision and weakness of character. The defeats of 1861-1862 forced Washington to move to tougher measures.

Second phase of the war (1863-1865)

In early 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves in the Southern states free. Negroes were able to fight for their independence in the ranks of the Federation army. This decision completely changed the nature of the war - now it was fought not only for the preservation of the unity of the United States, but also for the abolition of slavery. Great Britain and France, former trading partners of the Southern states, now looked favorably on Lincoln's actions.

The beginning of the year turned out to be unsuccessful for the Federation: the next attack on Richmond by a 130-strong army turned into a complete defeat from half the size of Lee's army. The battle lasted six days, and the total losses of the parties amounted to 18,5 thousand killed and wounded.

Taking into account the mistake of the year before last, Lee launched a counterattack on Washington, but was stopped by the army of General George Meade, the new commander of the North. From July 1 to July 3, 1863, the famous Battle of Gettysburg took place. The battle was extremely fierce - the Southerners sought to win a final victory, and the Northerners fought for the first time on their own land. As a result, the Confederates retreated, having lost 27 thousand people killed and wounded. The losses of the Northerners were a little less, so they could not pursue the enemy and build on their success.

At the same time, on the western front, Federation troops scored another important victory: they managed to capture the fortress of Vicksburg in Louisiana. Now the North controlled the entire Mississippi Valley, and the Confederacy was divided into two parts.

By the end of 1863, all the military and financial resources of the Confederation were running out, but the morale of the Southerners was still strong: they put up fierce resistance to the army of the North, now and then throwing it back.

Grant himself, with an army of 118, attacked in the east, meeting with enemy troops in the Wilderness Forest. In the battle in the Wilderness, Grant lost 18 thousand people, but this did not stop him. With bloody battles and huge losses, he broke through until he was stopped by General Lee in the 13-day Battle of Cold Harbor (May 31 - June 12). Having failed to gain the upper hand, Grant withdrew and laid siege to the city of Petersberg. This siege lasted for almost a year.

Meanwhile, Sherman's army fought its way to the Atlantic coast. By December he had occupied the coastal cities of Atlanta and Savannah and then turned to link up with Grant's forces.

By the spring of 1865, Grant had over 115 men at his disposal, while Lee had only 54. His army began to retreat, but was surrounded. On April 9, General Lee, with the remnants of his army, surrendered to Grant at the Appomattox River.

Five days after the surrender of the Army of the South, President Lincoln was assassinated. On April 14, 1865, he was shot dead by Southern supporter John Booth in the box of Ford's Theatre.

On May 10, with the arrest of Jefferson Davis and other members of the government, the Confederate States of America ceased to exist. Separate units of the CSA still continued to resist, but by August 1865 the war was over.

Results of the war

The government managed to preserve the integrity of the country.
The abolition of slavery was a step towards equalizing the white and black populations.
Centralization of power and strengthening of the internal market.

Anglo-Franco-Spanish intervention in Mexico 1861-1867

The intervention in Mexico is the armed intervention of European countries.

The Anglo-French-Spanish Intervention in Mexico is an armed intervention by Great Britain, France and Spain in Mexico, caused by a temporary suspension of payments on Mexican foreign debts.

The goals of the interventionists

The nominal goals of the expedition were to save Mexico from anarchy and the economic interests associated with refusing to pay obligations. On November 23, 1861, the Mexican Congress annulled the July 17 decree, but despite this, the Allies began to intervene.

Each of the intervention powers was guided by its own goals. Thus, England and France, wishing to subjugate Latin America to their influence, sought to take advantage of the weakening position of the United States. The British government supported the southerners and tried to provoke a conflict with the North. Reinforcements were sent to Canada, and the English fleet in American waters was reinforced. An invasion of Mexico could just lead to a war with the United States, in which England would thus have an advantage. Napoleon III also intended to strengthen his shattered authority with the help of an easy victorious war. The main reason for the participation of Spain was the desire to restore dominance in Mexico.

The presence of these goals did not remove the issue of financial claims. The bankers of the three powers intended to receive considerable sums from Mexico. During the civil war, the government of Miguel Miramon received about $ 1 million from the Swiss banker Zhekker. But under the terms of the loan, it turned out to be $ 52 million. The government of Benito Juarez refused to recognize this debt, citing the fact that Miramon did not have constitutional authority to conclude such a loan. Soon, the bonds of loans were with the Duke of Morny, who accepted Jekker into French citizenship so that France could have an excuse to "legitimately" protect the interests of a French citizen. Spain also had major financial claims against Mexico, with which the Conservative government entered into a number of agreements to indemnify Spanish subjects. The last of these was also annulled by the Juarez government.

The beginning of hostilities

On April 19, hostilities began between the French and Mexican armies. Back in the second half of March, large French reinforcements arrived in Veracruz under the command of Charles de Laurence, and the number of troops thus amounted to more than 7 thousand people. But by April, due to yellow fever, the expeditionary corps had decreased to ~ 6,5 thousand people. The Mexican army, according to official estimates, consisted of 26 people by the start of hostilities, but in reality the Mexicans had no more than 345 thousand people of trained regular troops, who were inferior to the French troops in terms of discipline, organization and weapons.

Soldiers of the federal army of Juarez
The French undertook a campaign against Puebla, the second largest city in Mexico, located on the way to the capital from Veracruz. On May 5, they attacked the forts of Guadelupe and Loreto, which covered the approaches to the city, but were defeated and were forced to retreat to their original position in Orizaba. According to official figures, out of 2500 people directly involved in the assault, the French lost 482 people killed, wounded and captured, while the Mexicans lost about 230. Now the day of victory at Puebla is celebrated as a Mexican national holiday - the Fifth of May (Spanish: Cinco de mayo) .

After the defeat, the French brought their army to 30 thousand people, not counting the 10 thousand naval forces operating in Mexican waters. In July 1862 Eli Fauré was appointed commander-in-chief and arrived in Veracruz on 22 September.

The French occupied Cordoba, Perote and a number of other important cities. And in 1863, the second offensive against Puebla began. The number of Mexican troops in the city was 15-20 thousand people. The defense was led by General Gonzalez Ortega (Spanish). The besieging army numbered 30 thousand people, including the Mexican allies. The siege began on 16 March. Since Puebla was built up with buildings with massive walls, the French had to take house by house. Field artillery was not effective enough and the interventionists had to use heavy naval guns. The city capitulated on May 17, all ammunition was destroyed, the cannons were damaged, and the powder magazines were blown up. According to official figures, during the fighting, the French lost 1300 people, although according to the American press, the losses reached 4 thousand people. The fall of Puebla opened the way to Mexico City.

The Juarez government decided to evacuate the capital to San Luis Potosi. In early June 1863, the French avant-garde entered Mexico City. All the main ports of Mexico were in the hands of the interventionists, which deprived the liberals of income from customs.

End of the war

After long hesitation about abdication and return to Europe, Maximilian I convened in January 1867 a new assembly of notables, which, by 17 votes out of 33, voted in favor of maintaining the power of the emperor. Prior to this, on December 1, 1866, he issued a manifesto in which he promised to convene a national congress with the participation of all parties to resolve the issue of preserving the monarchy.

On February 5, 1867, the French left the capital of Mexico, and by mid-March the whole country. Maximilian, who left 15-20 thousand Mexican soldiers and a small number of European volunteers, retreated to Querétaro, on May 15 the Republicans took this city and captured Maximilian.

Jean-Paul Laurent "The Last Moments of the Life of Maximilian"
The emperor was brought before a court-martial and, in accordance with a decree of January 25, 1862, was sentenced to death by firing squad. Numerous European crowned heads, as well as other notables (including Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi), sent letters and telegrams to Mexico advocating that Maximilian be spared, but Juárez refused to commute the sentence. He considered it necessary to show that Mexico could not tolerate any kind of interference in its internal affairs by other countries. On June 19, the sentence was carried out: Emperor Maximilian, generals Miramon and Mejia were shot on the Hill of the Bells.

On June 21, 1867, the Republicans captured Mexico City, and on June 29, Veracruz, which was the last stronghold of the conservatives. On July 15, Juarez solemnly entered the capital.

Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871

Franco-Prussian War - A war started by the Emperor of France.

The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was a war between the empire of Napoleon III and the German states, led by Prussia seeking European hegemony.

The war started by the Emperor of France (Second Empire) Napoleon III ended with the defeat and collapse of France, as a result of which Prussia managed to transform the North German Confederation into a single German state under its control, annex (return) Alsace and Lorraine, and also receive indemnity from the aggressor.

Casus belli

On July 8, 1870, the French ambassador was sent to King Wilhelm I, who was undergoing treatment in Bad Ems, to convey the dissatisfaction of Emperor Napoleon III with the candidacy of Leopold Hohenzollern for the Spanish crown. Not wanting to escalate the conflict with France, Wilhelm I soon personally contacted Leopold and his father Anton Hohenzollern and made it clear that it would be desirable to renounce the claim to the Spanish throne. Leopold agreed with the king's arguments and stopped claiming the crown of Spain.

However, the conflict was not over. Prussian Chancellor Bismarck hoped to provoke France into war and was furious when he learned of Wilhelm I's decision. Napoleon III was satisfied with a diplomatic victory over Prussia, but his government and public opinion were militaristic.

On July 13, France put forward a new demand to Wilhelm I, according to which the Prussian king was to give an official undertaking that he would forbid Leopold to accept the Spanish throne if he was ever offered to do so. By its nature, this demand was defiant and violated diplomatic etiquette, and an irritated Wilhelm replied to the French ambassador Vincent Benedetti that he had no right to make such promises. Dissatisfied with such an evasive answer from the king, Paris sent a new demand, according to which William I was to give a written promise never to encroach on the dignity of France. In response to this, the Prussian king refused an audience with the ambassador, and he had to state his demands at the station, before Wilhelm left for the capital. The King of Prussia promised that he would continue this conversation in Berlin. Leaving Ems, he ordered that the chancellor be informed of all the events that had taken place.

In the evening, Bismarck got acquainted with the dispatch he had received. He was disappointed with the behavior of the king, going to humiliation in order to avoid a war with France, which clearly sought to unleash it. Then Bismarck deleted from the message the words of the king, spoken at the station about the continuation of the conversation in Berlin. In the resulting version of the dispatch, Wilhelm I refused to receive the French ambassador and "ordered to convey that he no longer had anything to tell him." According to Bismarck himself, this "will give the Gallic bull the impression of a red rag."

That same evening, July 13, 1870, Bismarck ordered that this redacted dispatch be published in the newspapers. As he expected, the reaction of Paris was stormy - the majority of the French deputies voted for the war against Prussia, which was declared on July 19, 1870.

Course of the Franco-Prussian War

Already in the first days of the war, three German armies under the command of Wilhelm I, with the support of Otto von Bismarck and Minister of War Roon, crossed into French territory, preventing them from starting a war in Germany. Already during the occupation of Alsace and Lorraine by the Germans, revolutionary fermentation began in Paris.

Under the influence of the public, Napoleon III had to step down as commander in chief, transferring them to Marshal Bazaine. Near Metz, Bazaine's army was surrounded by the Germans, and the second army, which was going to help it, was blocked from the path.

An attempt by General MacMahon to break into Metz to Bazaine was repulsed by German troops, and the latter remained completely surrounded by the enemy. The defeat at Sedan became known in Paris, and on September 4 a revolution took place. Crowds of people walked around the capital, demanding the abdication of the French emperor, the Paris deputies announced the proclamation of the Third Republic.

The formed government was ready to make peace with Prussia, but Bismarck demanded Alsace and Lorraine from France, which he received a decisive refusal from Jules Favre, who was in charge of foreign policy in the new government.

Two months after the start of the war, the Germans began the siege of Paris. It began on September 19, 1870. At the end of September 1870, Strasbourg fell, and the famine that began in Metz forced Bazin to surrender to the German army.

Interesting: By October 1870, two French armies totaling about 250 thousand people were in German captivity.

Meanwhile, the siege of Paris continued for 19 weeks. The headquarters of the German command was located in Versailles. There were about 60-70 thousand soldiers in the city, but a small amount of supplies gave rise to a terrible famine. In January 1871, the Germans pulled up siege artillery to the city and began shelling. Attempts to throw off the siege were unsuccessful, and dissatisfaction with the command grew among the two million inhabitants of Paris.

On January 18, 1871, in one of the halls of Versailles, the King of Prussia, in the presence of sovereigns of other principalities, was proclaimed Emperor of Germany.

On January 23, 1871, Jules Favre went to Versailles to ask for peace. On January 28, an act of capitulation of Paris and an armistice for three weeks was signed.

Consequences of the war

The preliminary peace treaty was concluded on February 26, and the final one was signed on May 20 in Frankfurt am Main. As a result, France lost Alsace, Lorraine and paid 5 billion francs indemnity. Napoleon lost his crown and was replaced by Adolphe Thiers. He became the first president of the Third Republic, which was proclaimed after the Paris Commune.
The result of the Franco-Prussian War was the unification of Germany. The victory in this war was of great importance, making Germany the strongest country in Europe.

Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878

War between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman

The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 is a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states, on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, on the other, within the framework of the Eastern Crisis.

Background and causes of the conflict

Longstanding confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire; the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans; strengthening of the Russian army after the reforms of Milyutin; an opportunity for Russia to count on the support of the allied Romania and Serbia and on the uprising in Bulgaria.

The rebels in Bosnia and the Serbian army were defeated by the Turkish army; In Europe, there was a consensus on the unacceptability of Turkish policy towards Christian subjects, Russia took advantage of the favorable international situation.

The goal of the Russian Empire was to protect fellow believers, as well as the weakening of Turkey in the Balkan Peninsula and the strengthening of its own influence. This was planned to be achieved by tearing Bulgaria away from Turkey and strengthening Serbia and Romania.

The course of the conflict

The Russian army succeeded in forcing the Danube, capturing the Shipka Pass and forcing Osman Pasha's army to surrender at Plevna. Having crossed the Balkans, the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units, opening their way to Constantinople, which led to the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from the war.

Consequences of the conflict

At the Berlin Congress in 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which fixed the return of the southern part of Bessarabia to Russia and the annexation of Kars, Ardagan and Batum. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality within Turkey, the territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Turkey suffered heavy territorial losses in the Balkans, but this did not lead to a significant increase in Russian influence on the peninsula. Bulgaria nevertheless received serious self-government, which in fact soon led to independence. The straits remained under the control of the Ottoman Empire and still closed Russia's exit from the Black Sea.

Japan lockdown period ended (Sakoku)

Sakoku - Japan's foreign policy of self-isolation

Sakoku, also Japan's self-isolation, is Japan's foreign policy of self-isolation from the outside world, which was introduced after the peasant uprising in Shimabara and was carried out by the Tokugawa shoguns for two centuries, from 1641 to 1853.

BACKGROUND

In the middle of the 1542th century, a lively trade with Europeans began on the Japanese islands. In 1580, the Portuguese arrived there, and in XNUMX, the Spaniards. In Japan, European merchants, pirates and missionaries brought products from China (mainly silk), as well as European firearms. From there, gold, silver and slaves were exported. Having appeared in Japan along with merchants, the Jesuits (Francis Xavier and others) began to preach Catholicism, which at first had significant success in some principalities in southern Japan. The feudal lords of the island of Kyushu not only received the Jesuits and gave them permission to preach freely, to open schools and churches, but moreover, they themselves accepted Christianity and converted their vassals to it. They hoped to attract more merchant ships to their ports, and most importantly, to increase the stocks of firearms they needed. And the very support of the Europeans could play a big role in their struggle with other feudal lords.

The appearance of Europeans on the Japanese islands not only contributed to the aggravation of the internecine wars of the feudal lords, gave impetus to the development of maritime trade, but also caused the danger of subjugation of Japan by the European colonialists, because the Spaniards and the Portuguese took part in internecine wars on the side of the southern feudal lords. The Japanese could be convinced of the reality of the European threat by the example of the Philippines captured by the Spaniards. There was also a tangible danger from the Manchus, who subjugated China and Korea to their power.

The main reason for self-isolation was the internal instability in the country, which threatened the power of the feudal class. The development of foreign trade in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries caused the growth of a layer of wealthy citizens in seaports. Their influence, due to their enormous wealth, became so significant that it threatened to undermine the very foundations of the feudal system. Therefore, in order to maintain their position, the Japanese feudal lords needed to deal a blow to the growing power of the local merchant bourgeoisie by forbidding them to engage in foreign trade. Trade with foreigners was transferred to a monopoly company, not only created and controlled by the government of the shogun, but also organized with the direct participation of the government as a shareholder, which deprived both the merchant class and the southern feudal lords of a source of enrichment.

Shogunate's struggle against foreign influence

After the removal of officials guilty of relations with foreigners and the confirmation of the decree on the prohibition of the missionary activities of Christians (bans began under the expansionist Toyotomi Hideyoshi), the Tokugawa government took decisive action - several Christians were executed, and in 1614 a special decree introduced complete and unconditional prohibition of foreign religion. In 1630, the import of European books was stopped, as well as Chinese, where there was the slightest mention of Christianity.

Under pain of death, since 1636, the Japanese were forbidden to leave the territory of their country without special government sanction, as well as to build large ships suitable for long-distance voyages. Foreign merchants gave a special obligation to engage only in trade.

After the suppression of the Shimabara uprising of Catholic peasants, the shogunate finally “closes” the country to foreigners with a series of decrees, trying to stop any foreign influence. In 1638, by order of Tokugawa, all the Portuguese were expelled from the country; repressions were extended to the Spaniards even earlier. All contacts with the Western world were monopolized by the Dutch Calvinists, whose special position in the country was ensured by their help in suppressing the Catholic uprising, as well as the refusal to preach Christianity among the Japanese. Twice a year, Dutch and Chinese ships were allowed to enter only one port in the country - Nagasaki.

Information about Western sciences and culture, called rangaku, penetrated into Japan through the Dutch trading post on the artificial island of Dejima in the harbor of Nagasaki. The isolationist policy allowed the shoguns to tightly control trade with Korea and China, minimize the missionary activities of Catholic priests, and prevent the colonization of the islands by Europeans.

A gap in the arrangement of sakoku was the visits to Japan by Russian merchants and navigators, such as Pavel Lebedev-Lastochkin (1778), Nikolai Rezanov (1807) and Vasily Golovnin with Andrei Khlebnikov (1811); the latter were detained on the island of Kunashir and spent two years in Japanese captivity. The government was also dissatisfied with the more frequent cases of English (the Phaeton frigate) and French (La Perouse) ships entering Japanese harbors. These incidents led to a tightening of the sakoku policy.

The collapse of the Sakoku policy

In 1825, a decree was issued requiring that they open fire on any western ship that appeared near the Japanese coast.

A combination of external factors led in the middle of the XNUMXth century to an increase in the interest of European countries, and especially the United States, in opening trade with Japan:

The opening of Qing China in 1842 to trade with Europe and the United States, coupled with the annexation of California to the United States in 1850, created a constant flow of maritime traffic between North America and Asia. Additionally, the US whaling industry, which had been successfully deployed in the North Pacific since the mid-XNUMXth century, needed safe harbors, shipwreck assistance, and reliable refueling stations;
the parallel transition from a sailing fleet to a coal-fired steam fleet increased the need for American merchants for staging posts where merchant ships could load up with coal and provisions during the long passage from the US to China. The combination of favorable geographic location and rumors of significant coal reserves in Japan made the opening of Japanese ports to trade with the US a priority in the eyes of the US government;
finally, the constant flow of American sailors stranded on the shores of Japan due to shipwrecks and mistreated by the Japanese spurred the US government to establish direct diplomatic relations with Japan.

All this led the US government to the decision to send to Japan in 1853 an expedition of the US Navy under the command of Commander Perry, who was tasked with establishing direct diplomatic relations with Japan. Acting in the spirit of gunboat diplomacy, Perry's "black ships" under the threat of shelling Edo, forced Japan to conclude an agreement in Kanagawa, which opened Japan to foreign trade and effectively ended the country's policy of self-isolation. Similar treaties were soon concluded with Russia, France and Britain.

Signing of unequal treaties with foreign powers; the death of the shogun, who left no heir to the country; the economic crisis and epidemics resulting from the opening of the country to international trade - all together led the country to an economic and political crisis that ended in a civil war (1868-1869), in which the supporters of modernization, who rallied under the slogan of returning power to the emperor (Meiji Restoration), won supporters of the shogunate.

After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the new Japanese government set out to modernize the country. The restrictions of the Sakoku era were lifted, such as the ban on leaving the country, all ports were open for trade, and so on.

Boshin War 1868-1869

The Boshin War is a civil war in Japan.

The Boshin War (1868–1869) was a civil war between supporters of the Tokugawa Shogunate and pro-imperial forces in Japan. Ended with the defeat of the shogunate forces, leading to the Meiji Restoration.

The causes of the war

The war was the result of a series of social, economic and political troubles that befell Japan in the first half of the XNUMXth century, which caused the fall in popularity of the shogunal government and the growth of supporters of the restoration of direct imperial rule.

The course of the war, the results and impact on Japan

In the course of armed conflicts with Western states, the leaders of the southwestern Japanese possessions realized that the policy of "expelling the barbarians" leads to an open armed conflict in which the Japanese cannot win, and therefore secretly switched to the position of "opening the country" to foreigners. Thus, the principalities of Choshu and Satsuma, continuing the traditional criticism of the shogunate, began to purchase the latest weapons from abroad and hire military experts from Great Britain and the United States to train their own troops.

On January 3, 1868, Emperor Meiji proclaimed the restoration of all imperial power. Seven days after the shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu announced that the imperial declaration was "illegal", the war broke out. Yoshinobu's troops attacked Kyoto, the emperor's residence. Despite a 3:1 ratio of forces and the help of French military advisers, the first significant battle near Toba and Fushimi resulted in the defeat of the shogun's 15-strong army, and Yoshinobu was forced to flee to Edo. Saigoµ Takamori led the victorious imperial army into the northeast of Japan, which led to the surrender of Edo in May 1868.

After Yoshinobu capitulated, most of Japan recognized imperial rule, but a core of shogunal supporters, led by the Aizu clan, continued to resist. After a protracted battle lasting a month, the Aizu clan finally conceded defeat on September 23, 1868. A tragic incident is associated with this siege - the suicide of members of the Byakkotai ("White Tiger Squad"), a group of young samurai (mostly teenagers) who committed hara-kiri on a hilltop after , like smoke rising from the castle, mistakenly convinced them that Aizu's main fortress had fallen. A month later, Edo was renamed Tokyo and the Meiji era began.

In the final stage of the war, Admiral of the Shogunate fleet, Enomoto Takeaki, with the remnants of the fleet and several French advisers, fled to the island of Hokkaido and organized the Ezo Republic there, declaring himself president, but in May 1869 was defeated by the emperor's troops, after which the war was over. About 120 people participated in the armies of both sides. Of these, about 000 people died. After the victory, the Imperial Government abandoned the policy of isolation from the West and directed its efforts towards the modernization and Westernization of Japan. Many of the former leaders of the shogunate were pardoned and assumed government positions.

Former shogun Yoshinobu was placed under house arrest. However, in 1872 he was released and part of the privileges were returned to him. In 1902, Tokugawa Yoshinobu received the title of duke, but after the liquidation of the shogunate, he lost interest in politics and completely withdrew from public life.

Under the influence of Japanese monarchist-nationalist historiography of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, the Boshin War is idealized in Japanese art, literature and cinema.

Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895

Japan's war against the Manchu Qing Empire

The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 was Japan's war against the Manchu Qing Empire in order to establish dominance in Korea (nominally a vassal state of the Qing Empire) and penetrate Manchuria and China.

Course of the fighting

On July 25, 1894, the Japanese fleet began hostilities against China: off the western coast of Korea, at the entrance to Asan Bay, near Phundo Island in the Yellow Sea, the Japanese "Flying Squad" of Rear Admiral Tsuboi, consisting of four newest armored cruisers, attacked Chinese ships: the armored cruiser of the northern Beiyang fleet Jiyuan and the mine cruiser Kuang Yi seconded from the southern Guangdong squadron. Japanese officers later claimed that the Chinese ships opened fire first, but given the weakness of the Chinese detachment, it is difficult to believe this. As a result of a short battle, the mine cruiser Kuang Yi was sunk, and the cruiser Jiyuan was badly damaged and even raised a white flag, but, taking advantage of the misses of the Japanese commanders, managed to escape. At that moment, a transport chartered by the Chinese government approached the battlefield - the English steamship Gaosheng with two battalions of Chinese infantry and 14 field guns, as well as the wooden gunboat Caojiang guarding it. Seeing the Japanese ships, the old Chinese gunboat tried to flee, but was captured by a Japanese cruiser. The steamer under the British flag, owned by the Indochina Shipping Company, was attacked by the cruiser IJN Naniwa under the command of Captain 1st Rank Heihachiro Togo in violation of maritime law and sunk with almost all passengers, killing more than 800 people. According to eyewitnesses, Japanese sailors shot people who were escaping in boats and in the water.

The official declaration of war did not take place until August 1, 1894. On August 26, Japan forced Korea to sign an agreement on a military alliance, according to which Korea "entrusted" Japan with ousting Chinese troops from its territory. On September 15, 1894, the general battle for the Korean military campaign took place under the walls of Pyongyang. The army of General Ye Zhichao, who also had no previous military merit, was surrounded and defeated. Losses in killed and wounded amounted to more than 3000 people; many soldiers and officers were taken prisoner. At one of the gates of the city, General Zuo Baogui died. It is noteworthy that, according to the Qing historian Cai Erkang, 800 Korean soldiers participated in the defense of Pyongyang from the Japanese, who fought along with Ye Zhichao's battalions. On September 16, Chinese troops concentrated and, breaking through the encirclement, retreated to the border. The proposal of General Nie Shicheng to accept a new battle in the area of the city of Anju was not accepted, and Ye Zhichao withdrew the remaining troops behind the border river Yalujiang. Korea was lost to the Qing Empire.

The outcome of the war as a whole was decided by the Battle at the mouth of the Yalu River. On September 17, 1894, south of the mouth of the Yalu River (cor. Amnokkan), the main forces of the northern Beiyang fleet under the command of Admiral Ding Zhuchang and the Japanese Combined Fleet of Vice Admiral Ito Sukeyuki met in a fierce battle. Each side had ten warships. The Chinese squadron accompanied a detachment of transports with reinforcements for the army in the field, the Japanese had the task of defeating the Chinese fleet and destroying the transports. The battle lasted five hours and ended with the withdrawal of the Japanese fleet due to a lack of shells, he had no losses in the ships, the Japanese “Flying Squad” of Rear Admiral Tsuboi again distinguished himself. Having lost 4 cruisers, the Beiyang fleet first went to Lushun for repairs, and then to Weihaiwei and took refuge there, not daring to go out to a new battle. He did not even come to the rescue of the besieged Lushun (although the main repair base was located there), which was captured by the Japanese in November 1894 after the flight of the commandant of the fortress and most of the garrison. The victors captured rich trophies, a key ship repair base and an arsenal with a large amount of ammunition.

After that, having broken through the defenses of the Chinese troops on the border of China and Korea along the Yalu River, the Japanese decided to direct the main blow to the port of Weihaiwei and the Beiyang fleet stationed there (the complexity of repairs, lack of ammunition and the fear of the high command of new losses did not allow him to re-engage in battle with Japanese navy). In January 1895, units of the 2nd Army under the command of General Oyama, as well as two divisions from Japan, were transferred from the Liaodong Peninsula near Weihaiwei by sea, the United Fleet of Vice Admiral Ito blocked the fortress from the sea. On January 30, 1895, after bombarding the fortifications, Japanese troops occupied the coastal forts of the southern wing of the defense. Poorly trained and unstable provincial Chinese units fled the city's citadel and northern batteries, which were immediately occupied by the Japanese.

On February 12, 1895, Ding Ruchang began negotiations with Vice Admiral Ito on terms of surrender. In accordance with the terms of the agreement reached, the Japanese undertook not to cause any harm to the capitulated Chinese military personnel and to release them immediately after the surrender of all the coastal structures of Liugundao Island and the surviving ships of the Beiyang fleet. The Chinese officers wanted the commander of the British squadron located close to Weihaiwei to become the guarantor of the agreement, but the Japanese defiantly refused to accept the English representative. Upon learning of the outcome of the negotiations, Captain Liu Buchan blew up his battleship Dingyuan so as not to hand it over to the Japanese, explaining that the ship was incapable of combat and not transferable, and then committed suicide. Some other captains of Chinese warships also committed suicide. Admiral Ding Zhuchan rejected the Japanese offer of political asylum and, according to some versions, shot himself, and according to others, he took poison. On February 14, 1895, the Beiyang fleet and Liugongdao batteries lowered Chinese flags and surrendered.

Results of the war

On March 30, 1895, a 20-day truce was declared in Manchuria. A week earlier, Japanese troops landed on the Penghu archipelago and occupied it. On April 17, 1895, in Shimonoseki, representatives of Japan and China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, humiliating for China, but hostilities in Taiwan between the punitive forces of the Japanese invaders and the forces of the local governor, who did not recognize the transfer of his province to the Empire of Japan, did not stop until 1902. China's influence on Korea was lost and replaced by a Japanese protectorate. The Japanese navy repaired and commissioned the captured ships of the Chinese navy, gaining significant reinforcements and significant combat experience.

In May 1895, there was an official transfer by representatives of the Chinese authorities to the Japanese of the islands of Penghu and Taiwan, as well as the Liaodong Peninsula, which became the beginning of the formation of overseas possessions of the Japanese Empire. During this war, the future admirals Heihachiro Togo, Hikonojo Kamimura and Sotokichi Uriu commanded cruisers and perfectly studied the theater of operations, in which 10 years later they had to fight with the fleet of the Russian Empire during the Russo-Japanese War, the scenario of which repeated all the coups of the Japanese command. Due to the severe political and economic crisis, China was no longer able to restore the strength of its fleet and ceased to be a significant player even in the seas that directly wash its shores.

Spanish–American War of 1898

Spanish-American War - conflict between Spain and the United States

The Spanish-American War was a military conflict between Spain and the United States in 1898. During the fighting, the United States captured Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, which had belonged to the Kingdom of Spain since the XNUMXth century.

Hostilities began in the period after the internal explosion of the battleship "Maine" in the harbor of Havana (Cuba), which led to US intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. As a result, the United States began to dominate the Caribbean region and seized the Pacific possessions of Spain. This led to US involvement in the Philippine Revolution and eventually the Philippine–American War.

prehistory

In 1895, a massive anti-Spanish uprising began in Cuba; despite the mobilization of 150 men, Spain proved unable to cope with it. In the United States, there was a desire to support the Cuban rebels. This was due, among other things, to the economic interests of American businessmen in Cuba. In 000-1895, over 97 expeditions of American volunteers took place to support the uprising.

In January 1898, during the riots in Havana, Washington decided to send the battleship Maine to Havana in order to show US concern and protect American citizens. After the explosion of the battleship on February 15 of the same year, anti-Spanish sentiment in American society began to increase. This was also facilitated by the fact that a week before the explosion, the New York Journal newspaper published a stolen letter from the Spanish ambassador to the United States, in which he spoke disparagingly of US President W. McKinley and expressed confidence that Spain was ready to fight, if the war happens.

In a message to the US Congress on April 11, President McKinley proposed intervention in the events in Cuba, where Spain had already begun negotiations for a truce with the rebels. A week later, Congress decided that Spain should be invited to withdraw its troops from Cuba and recognize its independence; the president was asked to use the armed forces to achieve this goal. Spain was given until 23 April. On April 22, the US Navy began blockade of Cuba. In response, Spain declared war on the United States on April 23.

Hostilities

Hostilities in the West Indies began on the evening of April 22, 1898, when the American squadron of Rear Admiral Sampson (two battleships, ten cruisers, five destroyers), which left Key West at half past eight in the morning, entered the outer roadstead of Havana and opened fire on Spanish coastal batteries. However, the American naval command instructed its combat formations to avoid battles with the Spanish coastal fortifications, considering the destruction of the main forces of the Spanish fleet as a priority. Therefore, the Americans tried to organize a blockade of the main Cuban ports, attracting for this purpose mainly requisitioned and armed commercial ships after the outbreak of the war. Also, to protect its Atlantic coast, the American command formed a "flying squadron" under the command of Commodore Schley. On April 23, her ships went on long-range patrol for the first time.

The main American squadron of Vice Admiral William Sampson left Cuba for Puerto Rico, on May 19, 1898, Cervera arrived in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba to load his ships with coal. Then he intended to go to Havana - the main center of the Spanish defense on the island. But it was not possible to load the coal quickly. On May 25, an American auxiliary cruiser captured a coal transport heading for the Spaniards, and on May 27, Cerver's squadron was blocked by Winfeld Schley's squadron. On the night of May 29, Cervera sent 2 destroyers to attack, but their attack on blockading ships was repulsed by fire. On June 1, the squadron of Vice Admiral William Sampson also approached there, who took overall command.

The main opponents of the American army were not the Spaniards, but the rains of the epidemic and the lack of convenient communications. On June 26, the Americans entered into a clash with the Spanish army and, having a tenfold advantage, forced the Spaniards to retreat, but the state of the army after the victory was unsatisfactory and the Americans entrenched themselves in their positions, not thinking about persecution.

Realizing the futility of a sea battle for himself, Server offered to use the resources of the squadron for the land defense of Santiago. But the state of the troops in Havana was deplorable, and on July 2, Marshal Blanco categorically demanded that Cerver immediately break through to Havana. The admiral was forced to comply with the order.

Siege and surrender of Manila
On May 2, American landing troops occupied Cavite. The Spaniards withdrew to Manila. The Americans entered into an agreement with the Philippine rebels to jointly fight against the Spaniards. On June 8, the rebels occupied Las Piñas and Paranaque, clearing the outskirts of Manila from the Spaniards. On June 30, six thousand troops landed in Manila. On July 3, the independence of the Philippine Republic was proclaimed. Gradually expanding their presence in the archipelago, the Americans and Filipino rebels won one victory after another. By the end of July, the allied forces surrounded Manila, but were in no hurry to storm. After American reinforcements arrived on August 13, American and Filipino forces launched an assault on Manila, and the Spanish forces capitulated four hours later.

Results

On August 12, the United States and Spain signed a truce. According to the Treaty of Paris concluded in December 1898, which ended the war, Spain renounced its rights to Cuba, ceded to the United States Puerto Rico and other islands under its sovereignty in the West Indies, ceded to the United States the Philippine Islands for twenty million dollars, ceded to the United States Guam.

Revolution of 1917 in Russia

Revolution of 1917 in Russia

Revolutions of 1917 in Russia (February Revolution of 1917 and October Revolution of 1917;, Great Russian Revolution) is the conventional name for the revolutionary events that took place in Russia in 1917, starting with the overthrow of the monarchy during the February Revolution, when power passed to the Provisional Government, which, in turn, was overthrown as a result of the October Revolution of the Bolsheviks and their temporary allies, who proclaimed the power of the soviets (Soviet power).

February revolution

In February 1917, rallies and riots began in the Russian capital, Petrograd, provoked by interruptions in the supply of bread due to heavy snowfalls, against the backdrop of general economic difficulties and the unsettling situation of the First World War. A significant part of the soldiers of the St. Petersburg garrison went over to the side of the striking workers and the townsfolk smashing bread shops. Representatives of the leadership of the State Duma actually supported this uprising, largely spontaneous and devoid of political leaders, giving it legitimacy. On the one hand, the deputies were simply afraid of decisive actions to restore order, because they could not rely on the troops stationed in Petrograd. On the other hand, many saw in the current situation a reason to remove the Emperor, against whom the then circles of socialists, liberals and all kinds of revolutionary democrats had aroused public opinion for many years.

On February 27, the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet of Soldiers' and Workers' Deputies was created. It included representatives of the Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries. On March 1, the Petrosoviet issued "Order No. 1", which began the collapse in the army.

On March 2, 1917, Emperor Nicholas II, returning to the capital from the front, was removed from power during a conspiracy of representatives of the State Duma, headed by Guchkov and Milyukov, who were supported by most of the generals who led the fronts. On March 3, due to the lack of guarantees of personal security (there was essentially an anarchist riot on the streets of Petrograd at that moment), the younger brother of Nicholas II, Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich, renounced the succession to the throne, who agreed to the formation of the Provisional Government and the formation of the Constituent Assembly through elections which were supposed to take place six months later. The Constituent Assembly was supposed to decide on the state system of the country and establish its constitution. The provisional government was soon formed from members of the State Duma, most of the portfolios were received by the right: five - the Cadets, two - the Octobrists, one - the Progressive.

Situation between February and October

The activities of the Provisional Government, however, were not limited to the simple preparation of the convocation of a national constitutional assembly - its decisions aimed at liberalizing the state led in fact to the almost complete organizational collapse of the police, the army and, to a lesser extent, other state institutions. In addition, from the very At the beginning, the Provisional Government did not establish firm power over the country - the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Peasants' Deputies, made up of representatives of socialist parties and activists of labor movements, acted in parallel to it, while the Provisional Government itself was dominated by liberals and representatives of big capital. A virtual dual power was established.

Corruption, incompetence and direct betrayal on the part of the country's interim rulers, the continuation of active revolutionary propaganda by left-wing parties and movements, the growing separatism on the national outskirts of the former Empire, the progressive collapse of the army and the front, mass desertion, the appearance in the capital of many revolutionary-minded soldiers and sailors, as well as various radicals - all this contributed to the growth of chaos and the complete loss of control over the situation by the Provisional Government. After a series of government crises, in an attempt to rely on the left forces, the leaders of the Provisional Government actually abandoned the idea of the Constituent Assembly and on September 1, 1917, the Russian Empire was declared the Russian Republic simply by the decision of the five most significant ministers.

October Revolution

On November 7 (October 25 according to the old style), 1917, one of the most determined, disciplined and radical left-wing groups, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin and other professional revolutionaries who hastily returned from exile abroad or domestic Russian links. In the 8 months between February and October, the Bolsheviks, through propaganda and active organizational work, managed to increase the number of their supporters from 40 to about 000 people, turning from a marginal party into a significant social force. At the same time, both the “bourgeois” Provisional Government and the competing socialist parties turned out to be too indecisive, too moderate, extremely loosely organized and ideologically divided in comparison with the Bolsheviks, who acted very consistently, conducted attractive propaganda for the speedy establishment of full social justice, and therefore were able to find support among the broad masses of the urban population.

The Bolsheviks proclaimed the Russian Soviet Republic, the world's first socialist state. The coup in St. Petersburg was followed by other successful uprisings that established Soviet power in Moscow and other large industrial cities. The Bolsheviks did not wait for the Constituent Assembly, but carried out a whole series of radical revolutionary changes. In particular, landownership and land ownership in general were abolished, workers' control was introduced at industrial enterprises, and class inequality was abolished.

Immediate consequences

The Soviet government immediately began radical reforms in the interests of the proletariat and the poor sections of the peasantry, which caused discontent among the wealthy sections of the then Russian society. Meanwhile, the Constituent Assembly, finally convened, was dissolved on January 19, 1918, since the Bolsheviks did not receive a majority in the elections, and this body was simply not needed by the new authorities. Any succession of power in Russia was interrupted, the “dictatorship of the proletariat” was established, that is, the dictatorship of the Bolsheviks, who firmly opposed themselves to all other political forces, including monarchists, liberals, and more moderate socialists (Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries, who shortly before were allies of the Bolsheviks). ). As a result, centers of the anti-Soviet movement began to form on the outskirts of the country, which received special strength from political forces dissatisfied with the country's capitulation to Germany and its allies following the results of the Brest peace signed personally by Lenin.

In contrast to the so-called Reds, a white movement was created, seeking to restore pre-revolutionary unity and, in part, the political system of the country, since the political views of the leaders of the white movement were not monarchist. Separatist tendencies also intensified, independent national republics were declared in a number of regions, anarchist movements and ordinary banditry flourished. The successful German offensive forced the Bolsheviks to conclude a separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, which led to the loss of vast territories in the west. Soon, from May 1918, active hostilities of the Civil War began. On July 17, 1918, the former Emperor Nicholas II and his family were shot by the Bolsheviks in Yekaterinburg, and around the same period, most of his other close relatives who were able to take the throne were killed; from that moment on, the restoration of the pre-revolutionary regime became obviously impossible.

World War I 1914 - 1918

World War I - military conflict of 38 states

The First World War or the Great War of 1914-1918 was a 38-state military conflict between two coalitions of states in Europe, the fighting of which also spread to the Middle East, Africa and parts of Asia.

Causes and start of the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, the contradictions between the two European coalitions of European states, the Entente (Russia, England, France) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy), escalated. They were caused by the intensification of the struggle for the redistribution of already divided colonies, spheres of influence and markets. Having begun in Europe, the war gradually acquired a global character, covering the Far and Middle East, Africa, the waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic and Indian oceans.

The reason for the start of the war was the terrorist attack committed in June 1914 in the city of Sarajevo. Then a member of the Mlada Bosna organization (a Serbian-Bosnian revolutionary organization that fought for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Greater Serbia) Gavrilo Princip killed the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with unacceptable ultimatum terms, which were rejected. As a result, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia stood up for Serbia, true to its obligations. France promised to support Russia.

Germany demanded that Russia stop the mobilization actions, which were continued, as a result, on August 1, she declared war on Russia. Germany declares war on France on August 3, and on Belgium on August 4. Great Britain declares war on Germany and sends troops to help France. August 6 - Austria-Hungary vs. Russia.

In August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany, in November Turkey entered the war on the side of the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc, and in October 1915 Bulgaria entered the war.

Italy, which initially held a position of neutrality, in May 1915, under British diplomatic pressure, declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916 on Germany.

The results of the military campaign of 1914

Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for blitzkrieg.
No one managed to win a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

The result of the military campaign in 1915

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to withdraw Russia from the war, although all forces were thrown at it. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since in 1,5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or a strategic initiative.

Results of 1916 in the First World War

The strategic initiative went over to the side of the Entente.
The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the advance of the Russian army.
Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
Russia launched a powerful offensive - the Brusilovsky breakthrough.

Results of 1917 in the First World War

Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

Results of 1918 in the First World War

Germany recognizes complete defeat in the war.
The return of France to the province of Alsace and Lorraine to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
For 15 years, the Entente troops are located on the left bank of the Rhine.
For 30 years, Germany must pay reparations, and the amount of these reparations is set by the victors themselves and can increase them at any time during these 30 years.
Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army was obliged to be exclusively voluntary.

Results of the war

The main result of the First World War was huge human losses. In total, more than 10 million people died, with a significant part of the losses being civilians. As a result, hundreds of cities were destroyed, the economies of the participating countries were undermined.

The result of the war was the collapse of four empires - the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, German and Russian. Only the British Empire survived.

Literally everything has changed in the world - not only relations between states, but also their internal life. Human life, clothing style, fashion, women's hairstyles, musical tastes, norms of behavior, morality, social psychology, relations between the state and society have changed. The First World War led to an unprecedented depreciation of human life and the emergence of a whole class of people who were ready to solve their own and social problems at the cost of violence. Thus ended the period of modern history, and mankind entered another historical epoch.

II. main characters

Victoria (Queen of Great Britain)

Queen Victoria (1819-1901). The daughter of the fourth son of King George, who had no chance of the throne, not only became the head of the British monarchy, but also received the nickname "the grandmother of Europe."

Three of her older brothers died without heirs, and in 1837 Victoria became queen. She had to fight to consolidate her influence, go through intrigues and fall in popularity among the people. In the 1840s, she survived several assassination attempts, and none of the terrorists was sent to the gallows. After her marriage to Prince Albert, the birth of her first child and the assassination attempts, her popularity rose again. But only in England. The Irish, more than a million of whom died of starvation, called her none other than "Queen Hunger."

The reign of Victoria was accompanied by increased colonial expansion, the development of industry and technology, and the development of agriculture. The British fleet finally received the status of the strongest in the world, and the ground forces used the latest achievements of science.

Having defeated Russia in the Crimean War, Great Britain took a dominant position in Europe, dividing it with France. In 1877, Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India after the sepoy rebellion was defeated. Her possessions have turned into a state over which the sun never sets.

Queen Victoria reigned for more than 63 years, becoming a symbol of England, revered by both the aristocracy and the common people. After the celebration of Christmas, the English queen felt unwell and weak, which ended in death on January 22, 1901.

Otto von Bismarck (Reich Chancellor of the German Empire)

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck was Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1862 to 1890, united Germany into an empire in several wars, and became its first Chancellor from 1871 to 1890. Initially a deeply conservative, aristocratic and monarchist politician, Bismarck fought against the growing movement of social democracy in the 1880s by outlawing several such organizations, and pragmatically assessed the need for compulsory pension payments for the elderly, sickness and accident insurance for workers.

Bismarck managed to unify Germany in several wars. First, in alliance with Austria, Schleswig and Holstein were recaptured from Denmark; a peace treaty confirming this fact was concluded in Vienna on October 30, 1864. In 1866, Bismarck attacked Austria and quickly won the Battle of Königgrazz, annexing Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau and Frankfurt am Main, and formed the North German Confederation. In 1870, after a provocation by the Chancellor, the Franco-Prussian War broke out, and the South German states, considering France as the aggressor, joined the North German Confederation. France suffered a humiliating defeat and Wilhelm I was crowned German Emperor at Versailles in 1871. Bismarck thus largely created a Prussian-oriented Germany in 1871 that did not include only Austria.

As a national hero, Bismarck was the first Reich Chancellor (Chancellor) of the new Empire. In foreign policy, he now favored keeping the peace among the European powers.

In domestic politics, the chancellor was concerned about the emergence and spread of two new parties: a strong party of Catholics and social democrats. The campaign against Catholicism that began in 1872 was largely unsuccessful. Bismarck also attacked the Social Democrats by outlawing this party, and satisfying the demands of workers with guarantees of accident and health insurance, as well as old-age pensions.

After the 1890 elections, at the urging of Kaiser Wilhelm II, Bismarck resigned. Germany's first great chancellor spent the last years of his life writing his memoirs and died in 1898.

Franz Joseph I (Emperor of Austria)

The new emperor received the crown largely due to the help of Russian troops in suppressing the Hungarian uprising, which was a blow to the prestige of the Austrian monarchy. At the beginning of the Crimean War, the confidence of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the support of the recently rescued Austrians played an important role. Despite the fact that Austria did not enter into the conflict, a number of diplomatic mistakes, primarily a harsh ultimatum on peace terms put forward by Austria to Russia, led to the fact that the country lost important allies. The Kingdom of Sardinia took advantage of this, with the support of France and Prussia, resuming the struggle for the unification of Italy. As a result, by 1860, the empire lost Lombardy, and the representatives of the House of Habsburg lost power in Modena and Tuscany.

In 1866, Austria began a war against Prussia for leadership in the German world. After the Battle of Sadovaya, which ended in the defeat of the Austrian army, the empire was forced to admit defeat. Austria lost Venice and recognized the unification of the North German states with Prussia. Shortly thereafter, the Hungarian elite, through the mediation of the wife of Franz Elisabeth of Bavaria, obtained from Franz Joseph the granting of equal rights to the Austrian Germans and the transformation of the Austrian Empire into a dual monarchy. Fearing a new revolution, the emperor, who was almost killed by a Hungarian nationalist in 1853, was forced to agree. This led to the beginning of a national movement among other peoples of the Danubian monarchy.

In 1871, Austria-Hungary recognized the proclamation of the German Empire and entered into an alliance with it, which included Russia until the mid-1880s. This allowed the power of Franz Joseph to increase its influence in the Balkans during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, in particular, the empire occupied, and in 1908 annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. The latter event led to a political crisis and increased disagreement with Russia, as well as open confrontation with Serbia and, ultimately, the fatal participation of Austria-Hungary in the First World War. Franz Joseph himself did not see the collapse of his empire, he died in 1916 from pneumonia at the age of 86.

Alexander II (Emperor of All Russia)

Alexander II went down in history as a reformer and liberator. In his reign, serfdom was abolished, compulsory military service was introduced, zemstvos were established, judicial reform was carried out, censorship was limited, and a number of other reforms were carried out. The empire expanded significantly due to the conquest and inclusion of the Central Asian possessions, the North Caucasus, the Far East and other territories. According to D. Mirsky, with the death of Alexander ended the era of the highest rise of Russian literature, which brought her worldwide fame.

At the same time, the country's economic situation worsened: industry was struck by a protracted depression, and there were several cases of mass starvation in the countryside. The deficit of the foreign trade balance and the state external debt (almost 6 billion rubles) reached a large size, which led to the disorder of money circulation and public finances. The problem of corruption has escalated. A split and sharp social contradictions formed in Russian society, which reached their peak by the end of the reign.

Other negative aspects usually include the results of the Berlin Congress of 1878, unfavorable for Russia, exorbitant expenses in the war of 1877-1878, numerous peasant uprisings (in 1861-1863: more than 1150 speeches), large-scale nationalist uprisings in the kingdom of Poland and the North-Western Territory (1863) and in the Caucasus (1877-1878).

The views of modern historians on the era of Alexander II were subject to drastic changes under the influence of government ideology and are not well-established. Soviet historiography was dominated by a tendentious view of his reign, which followed from the general nihilistic attitudes towards the "era of tsarism." Modern historians, along with the thesis of the "liberation of the peasants", state that their freedom of movement after the reform was "relative". Calling the reforms of Alexander II "great", they at the same time write that the reforms gave rise to "the deepest socio-economic crisis in the countryside", did not lead to the abolition of corporal punishment for peasants, were not consistent, and economic life in 1860-1870 The XNUMXs were characterized by industrial recession, rampant speculation and grunderism.

Napoleon III (Emperor of the French)

The nephew of Napoleon I, after a series of conspiracies to seize power and the revolution of 1848, was democratically elected 1st President of the Republic (1848). Having made a coup (1851) and eliminating the legislature, by means of "direct democracy" (plebiscite) he established an authoritarian police regime and a year later proclaimed himself emperor of the Second Empire. After ten years of rather tight control, the Second Empire, which became the embodiment of the ideology of Bonapartism, moved to some democratization (1860s), which was accompanied by the development of the French economy and industry. Under him, Baron Haussmann carried out a large-scale reconstruction of Paris. A few months after the adoption of the liberal constitution of 1870, which returned the rights to parliament, the Franco-Prussian war put an end to Napoleon's rule, during which the emperor was captured by the Germans and never returned to France.

Napoleon III was the first president and last monarch of France.

Abraham Lincoln (US President)

The Civil War was the bloodiest military conflict in the history of the United States and the most difficult test for American democracy. Abraham Lincoln became a central historical figure in the minds of the American people, a man who prevented the collapse of the United States and made a significant contribution to the formation of the American nation and the abolition of slavery as the main obstacle to the subsequent normal development of the country. Lincoln initiated the modernization of the South, the emancipation of slaves. He owns the formulation of the main goal of democracy: "Government created by the people, from the people and for the people." During his presidency, a transcontinental railway to the Pacific Ocean was also laid, the infrastructure system was expanded, a new banking system was created, and the agrarian problem was solved. However, at the end of the war, the country faced many problems, including the unity of the nation and the equalization of the rights of blacks and whites. In part, these problems have not yet been fully resolved and still face American society. After the assassination of Lincoln, the United States economy for a long time became the most dynamically developing economy in the world, which allowed the country to become a world leader at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. In many ways, his personal qualities made it possible to mobilize the forces of the state and reunite the country. Lincoln adhered to strict moral principles of morality, had a sense of humor, but was also prone to intense melancholy. To this day, Abraham Lincoln is considered one of the most intelligent presidents of the United States. As a token of the gratitude of the American people, a memorial was erected in Washington to the sixteenth President Abraham Lincoln as one of the four presidents who determined the historical development of the United States of America.

Antihero 🙂

III. Events by year:

Events by years 1836 - 1841

1836

February 25 - Samuel Colt receives a patent for the first ever workable revolver, named the Colt Paterson.
March 2 - A convention of representatives of the people of Texas in Washington-on-the-Brazos declares the independence of Texas from Mexico.
1May 3 - construction of the Tsarskoye Selo railway began, the first in the Russian Empire, passing along the route St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo - Pavlovsk.
May 14 - Mexican President General Antonio de Santa Anna, captured by the Texans, signs an agreement recognizing the independence of the Republic of Texas, withdrawing Mexican troops from Texas, and establishing a border along the Rio Grande.
August 12 - The Constitution of Cadiz of 1812 is restored in Spain.
November 21 - The Battle of Constantine began, during which the French expeditionary corps suffered a crushing defeat from the Arabs.
At the end of December, the already ill Niccolò Paganini gave his last concerts in Nice.
The first stone was laid in the foundation of the Brest Fortress, the construction of the fortress continued until 1914.
In the Italian village of Calvatone, an ancient Roman statue was found, nicknamed "Victoria Calvatone".

1837

February 8 - St. Petersburg, A. S. Pushkin, a Russian poet and statesman, was mortally wounded, resulting in a painful death on the third day of February 10.
May 6 - In the east of Guatemala in the village of Matakescuinta, Sergeant Rafael Carrera raised an uprising that led to the disintegration of the Federal Republic of Central America.
May 30 - France and Abd al-Qadir conclude the Treaty of Tafna, according to which France recognizes the state of Abd al-Qadir within the borders of almost all of Algeria.
June 20 – Queen Victoria ascends the English throne.
October 13 - During the conquest of Algeria, after a short siege, the French captured the fortress city of Constantine.
December 17 - a grandiose fire in the Winter Palace.

1838

March 16 - The Brazilian Imperial Army occupies the city of San Salvador and liquidates the self-proclaimed Republic of Bahia.
April 30 - Nicaragua announces its withdrawal from the Federal Republic of Central America.
May 8 - Publication of the People's Charter in England.
September 3 - The Institute for Noble Maidens is opened in Kyiv.
October 1 - First Anglo-Afghan War: The Governor-General of India, the Earl of Auckland, circulated a manifesto declaring war on the Shah of Afghanistan, Dost Mohammed, accused of obstructing free trade and endangering the borders of British India.
October 18 - The French army in Algiers violated the Treaty of Tafna and began hostilities against the emirate of Abd al-Qadir.
November 15 - The First Anglo-Afghan War: the detachments of the pretender to the Afghan throne, Shuja ul-Mulk, set out from Ludhiana in the direction of Afghanistan.
November 16 - The Battle of the Windmill near Prescott, Canada ends in victory for the British and loyalist militia, and the Republican rebels are defeated.
November 27 – Battle of San Juan de Ulúa during the Confectionery War between Mexico and France.
December 2 - First Anglo-Afghan War: Shuja ul-Mulk's detachments crossed the border of British possessions in India and invaded Afghanistan.
December 8 – Mikołaj Schulz, commander of the Canadian Republican rebel detachment, is executed in Kingston.
December 10 - First Anglo-Afghan War: The British army invades Afghanistan. Together with her, the pretender to the Afghan throne, Shuja ul-Mulk, crossed the border.

1839

January 19 - Aden is occupied by Great Britain and included in the British Indian colony of Bombay in September.
February 18 - at the Polotsk Church Council, the Greek Catholic Church of the Russian Empire, on the initiative of Joseph, was reunited with the Russian Orthodox Church.
April 1 - Settlements of freed American slaves on the west coast of Africa unite to form the Commonwealth of Settlements of Liberia.
April 21 - The Turkish army, violating the Kutahia agreement, crossed the Euphrates River and began a campaign against Egypt.
April 25 - First Anglo-Afghan War: British and Punjabi troops occupy the Afghan city of Kandahar.
May 12 - An uprising in Paris, organized by the "Society of the Seasons" of Auguste Blanqui. Suppressed the next day.
July 15 - demonstrations of workers in the city of Birmingham.
July 23 - First Anglo-Afghan War: British and Punjabi troops take the Afghan city of Ghazni and begin to advance towards Kabul.
August 7 - First Anglo-Afghan War: Shah Shuja ul-Mulk entered Kabul, abandoned by the forces of Emir Dost Mohammed. An anti-British guerrilla war begins in the country.
August 23 - Hong Kong is captured by the British.
September 19 - Clark Ross' expedition to Antarctica begins.
November 3 - The shelling of Chinese ships by the English fleet at the mouth of the Xijiang River, the first clash of the First Opium War.

1840

February 6 - Treaty of Waitangi.
March 18 - The British declare war on China in connection with the latter's ban on the opium trade on its territory. Beginning of the First Opium War.
May 6 – The world's first Penny Black postage stamp is issued in the UK.
June 18 - Emperor Nicholas I issued a decree banning the use of the terms "Belarus", "Lithuania", "Belarusian", "Lithuanian" provinces in official documents and introducing the name "North-Western Territory" instead.
August 19 - Great Britain, Prussia, the Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire presented an ultimatum to the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, demanding that they give up the captured possessions of the Ottoman Empire within 10 days, retaining the title of hereditary ruler of Egypt and the ruler of Palestine for life. Ultimatum rejected.
November 2 - First Anglo-Afghan War: Deposed Emir Dost Mohammed of Afghanistan defeats the British troops of General Sale in the Parwan Gorge.
November 5 – First Anglo-Afghan War: rebel leader Emir Dost Mohammed and members of his family, for unclear reasons, reported to Kabul and surrendered to British military authorities.

1841

February 19 - A military coup in Paraguay, the civilian triumvirate is overthrown, army commander Mariano Roque Alonso comes to power.
May 22 - the beginning of the uprising of peasants in the Georgian region of Guria.
May 26 - During the First Opium War, the British armed forces took the largest Chinese port city of Canton; the Chinese authorities pledged to resume Anglo-Chinese trade and pay the British 6 million yuan in silver, that is, a little less than 16 tons of silver.
July 5 – British entrepreneur Thomas Cook opens the first travel agency in history, now known as the Thomas Cook Group.
17 July – The first issue of the humorous illustrated weekly magazine Punch is published in London.
November 2 – First Anglo-Afghan War: Massive anti-British uprising in Kabul led by relatives of deposed emir Dost Mohammed.
December 13 - First Anglo-Afghan War: British troops leave the center of Kabul. Shah Shuja ul Mulk is besieged by the rebels in the citadel of Bala Hissar.
December 23 - First Anglo-Afghan War: During the negotiations, the Afghans kill the British representative, Major McNaughton, and declare the previous agreements invalid.
British occupation of Hong Kong.
Sultan Kenesary was proclaimed the all-Kazakh Khan of the restored Kazakh Khanate.
British polar explorer James Ross discovered the Ross Sea, the volcanoes Erebus and Terror in Antarctica.

Events by years 1842 - 1849

1842

January 6 – First Anglo-Afghan War: British troops begin to evacuate Afghanistan.
April 5 - First Anglo-Afghan War: in Kabul, the Shah of Afghanistan, Shuja ul Mulk, who was brought to power by the British in 1839, was shot dead from an ambush.
May 5 - The Great Fire of Hamburg.
July 21 - Climbing up the Yangtze River, British troops take the city of Zhenjiang, another Chinese defeat in the First Opium War.
August 29 – The Treaty of Nanjing is signed between Britain and China, ending the First Opium War.
September 11 - Military coup in Costa Rica. Francisco Morazán is overthrown.
September 14 - there was a big fire in Perm, in which the entire central part of the city perished.
September 15 - Former leader of Central America, Francisco Morazan, is shot dead in the central square of San Jose.

1843

March 14 – Jean-Pierre Boyer, president of Haiti, is overthrown.
October 13 – The Jewish organization B'nai B'rith is founded in New York.
November 15 - the capture of the Gergebil fortress by Shamil's army during the Caucasian War.
December 30 - A new constitution for the Republic of Haiti is adopted.
Scottish physicist Alexander Bain demonstrated the first primitive fax machine that could transmit images over wires.
Swiss Jacob Christoph Rad, manager of a sugar factory in Dačice (Czech Republic), invented refined sugar in the form of cubes.

1844

February 27 - On the island of Haiti, the rebels capture Santo Domingo and proclaim the Dominican Republic, independent of the Republic of Haiti.
March 21 - The Edict of Toleration is signed by Turkey, which allowed the Jews to return to the Holy Land.
May 3 - Haitian President General Charles Herrard resigns after an anti-government uprising. The presidency was taken by General Philip Guerrier.
June 8 - The US Senate votes against the Texas annexation treaty draft.
August 12 - The French army, pursuing the forces of Abd al-Qadir, defeated the army of the Sultan of Morocco on the Isli River.
October 22 - a religious event, called "The Great Disappointment".
December 21 - The first workers' co-operative society is founded in Rochdale, England.
The first telegraph line was put into operation in the USA.
French psychiatrist Jacques Joseph Moreau de Tour conducted research on the effects of hashish on the psyche, founding the "Club of the Assassins" (1844-1849), whose members were offered to take hashish and dawamesk.

1845

February 7 – Vandal William Lloyd smashes the unique Portland Vase in the British Museum.
March 1 - The US Congress passes a resolution authorizing the US government to annex the Republic of Texas.
August 18 - Emperor Nicholas I granted the petition to establish the Russian Geographical Society. December 29 - US President James Polk signs a bill approved by Congress and the Republic of Texas joins the United States, becoming their 28th state.
William Parsons builds the world's largest telescope Leviathan. He also discovers that the galaxy M51 has a spiral structure.

1846

February 10 - The Galician uprising broke out in the northeast of the Austrian Empire.
February 20 - The Polish democratic society raised an uprising in Krakow, which should be the beginning of an all-Polish uprising.
February 22 - Polish patriots who captured the Krakow Republic formed the National Government of the Polish Republic in Krakow. Yan Tyssovsky became the dictator of the uprising.
March 1 - Rebellion in the Republic of Haiti. The rebels proclaimed General Jean-Baptiste Richet president.
March 3 - The Russian and Austrian armies took Krakow, crushing the Krakow Uprising of 1846.
April 23 - The Mexican-American War begins.
May 8 - Battle of Palo Alto, first battle of the Mexican-American War.
May 15 - The Imperial Russian Archaeological Society was founded in St. Petersburg.
July 8 - The first St. Petersburg Sailing Yacht Club in Russia is organized.
September 23 - The planet Neptune is discovered.
November 6 - The Russian Empire, Prussia and the Austrian Empire signed an agreement under which the Krakow Republic was liquidated; its territory was ceded to Austria.

1847

February 23 - Mexican-American War; the second, decisive day of the Battle of Buena Vista.
April 18 - Scott's Mexican Campaign: Battle of Cerro Gordo.
May 15 - Scott's Mexican Campaign: Scott's army enters Puebla.
July 26 - The Republic of Liberia is proclaimed on the west coast of Africa, founded by freed slaves from the United States.
August 19 - Scott's Mexican Campaign: First day of the Battle of Contreras.
September 8 - Battle of Molino del Rey
September 15 - Mexican-American War: The US Army takes Mexico's capital, Mexico City.
November 12 - The State Assembly of Hungary opens in Pozsony.

1848

January 12 - the beginning of the revolution of 1848-1849 in Italy. Revolt in Palermo.
January 24 – Gold is discovered on the Sacramento River. The beginning of the "gold rush" in the United States.
February 2 – Peace treaty signed between Mexico and the United States at Guadalupe Hidalgo.
February 15 - The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels is published in London.
February 24 - Louis-Philippe I, the last Bourbon king, is overthrown from the French throne. The beginning of the revolution in France.
February 27 - the beginning of the revolution of 1848-1849 in Germany.
March 13 - the beginning of the revolution of 1848-1849 in Austria.
March 15 - the beginning of the revolution of 1848-1849 in Hungary.
March 25 - King Charles Albert of Sardinia is forced to declare war on Austria. The Austro-Italian War officially began.
March 29 - Niagara Falls stopped for 30 hours due to ice jams on Niagara.
April 13 - Members of the League of Communists organized a workers' organization, the Cologne Workers' Union, which was soon headed by Karl Marx.
May 15 - anti-government demonstration of students and workers in Vienna.
May 26 - Uprising and barricade battles in Vienna.
June 12 - The beginning of the Prague Uprising.
June 17 - The Austrian army crushes the uprising in Prague.
August 9 – King Charles Albert of Sardinia concludes a humiliating truce with Austria after being defeated at Custotz.
October 6 - A popular uprising begins in Vienna, which was the culminating point of the Austrian revolution.
November 15 - The Austrian Reichstag closes.
December 10 - Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is elected President of the French Republic.

1849

February 8 - The Roman Republic is proclaimed by revolutionaries in Rome.
March 20 – King Charles Albert of Sardinia breaks the 1848 truce and resumes war with Austria.
March 21 - The Sardinian army is defeated by the Austrians at Mortara.
March 23 - After the defeat in the Austro-Italian War, the King of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Charles Albert, abdicated and left for Portugal. The throne was taken by his son Victor Emmanuel II.
March 26 - The new king of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, concluded a truce with Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky, according to which the Austrian army occupied Lombardy and the Venetian region
March 29 - Britain annexes the Punjab.
May 3 - the beginning of the May uprising in Dresden.
May 16 – Karl Marx is expelled from Germany.
June 9 – The Second Carlist War ends in Spain.

Events by years 1850 - 1859

1850

January 4 - after a mock execution, the condemned Petrashevites, including F. M. Dostoevsky, were pardoned.
March 2 - Prussia passes laws abolishing land serfdom for ransom.
May 31 - The abolition of universal suffrage in France.
September 12 - The Battle of Missunda took place during the Danish-Prussian War.
October 1 - The customs border between the Austrian and Hungarian lands of the Austrian Empire is abolished.
May 25 - The Obais hippopotamus was brought to the London Zoo from Cairo, the first to be brought to Europe since the time of Pliny the Elder.

1851

January 15 - General Mariano Arista, who advocated cooperation with the United States, became president of Mexico.
February 2 - The combined army of El Salvador and Honduras is defeated by the Guatemalan army at the town of Arad.
May 1 - opening of the First World Exhibition in London.
May 21 - Slavery is finally abolished in the Republic of New Granada.
June 21 - Immortal Party played
August 6 - between Russia and Qing China, the Kuldzha Treaty was concluded on the expansion of Russian trade in China and its guarantees.
August 27 - In China, the Taipings capture the city of Yong'an. There proclaimed the "Heavenly State of Great Welfare".
November 1 - The Nikolaevskaya railway opens in Russia, connecting Moscow with St. Petersburg.
December 2 – French President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup and dissolved the Legislative Assembly.
December 31 - The decreed constitution of Austria is canceled and the unlimited power of the emperor is restored.

1852

February 9 - In China, the Taipings began a campaign from Wuhan to Nanjing.
March 13 - The New York newspaper NY Lantern weekly published what is believed to be the first image of Uncle Sam.
June 30 - New Zealand's first Constitutional Decree is passed, enabling the formation of the country's Parliament.
August 23 - Time signals are transmitted by telegraph from the Greenwich Observatory for the first time.
September 24 – Henri Giffard makes the first airship flight.
October 10 - Napoleon III made his famous statement in Bordeaux - "Empire is peace!".
December 2 - Proclamation of the Second Empire. Louis Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor Napoleon III. Establishment of a Bonapartist dictatorship.

1853

March 19 - The Taipings occupied Nanjing in China.
May 21 - Congress of the Republic of New Granada adopts a new constitution for the country.
July 3 - The Russian army of Prince Mikhail Gorchakov entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under Turkish sovereignty.
August 24 – Chef George Speck, who later changed his surname to Crum, invents chips.
October 16 - Turkey declares war on the Russian Empire. The Crimean War began.
November 30 - the defeat of the Turkish fleet by the Russian squadron under the command of Admiral Nakhimov.
December 1 - in the Caucasus, the main Turkish forces are defeated by the Russian army at Bashkadiklar.

1854

January 4 - The combined fleet of England and France entered the Black Sea.
February 21 - The Russian Empire declares war on England and France.
February 28 – The Republican Party of the United States is founded in Ripon, Wisconsin.
March 27 - the beginning of the Crimean War, England and France declared war on Russia.
April 20 – Austria and Prussia conclude a defensive agreement in case of a Russian attack.
April 22 - Anglo-French squadron shelled Odessa.
May 17 - The Russian army on the Danube besieged the Turkish fortress of Silistria.
June 16 - in the Caucasus, on the Chorokh River, the Batumi Turkish detachment was defeated by the Russians.
August 5 - The Turkish army in the Caucasus is defeated at Kyuruk-Dara.
August 7 - Anglo-French troops landed on the then Russian Aland Islands and laid siege to Bomarzund, which soon capitulated.
September 5 - The Peter and Paul Defense was successfully completed.
October 5 - Sevastopol defense: the first artillery shelling of Sevastopol by the allied army.
December 14 - The Austrian Empire declares an alliance with England and France.

1855

January 6 - the capture of Shanghai by the French and Qing troops, captured by the anti-Manchurian uprising of the triads.
January 9 - The conference of the ambassadors of Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia opened, which did not produce results.
January 26 - The Kingdom of Sardinia declared war on the Russian Empire by entering the Crimean War.
February 7 - The Treaty of Shimoda is signed between Russia and Japan.
March 3 - Emperor Alexander II ascends the Russian throne.
June 18 - Allies unsuccessfully storm Sevastopol.
August 16 - Russian troops unsuccessfully attack the Allied positions in the Crimea on the Chernaya River.

1856

January 1 - The monopoly on Faroese trade is abolished.
February 25 - The Paris Congress opened. The Congress was supposed to sum up the results of the Crimean War.
March 30 - The Treaty of Paris is signed following the results of the Crimean War.
September 21 - William Walker signs a decree re-establishing slavery in Nicaragua.

1857

26 January – Anglo-Afghan treaty signed in Peshawar.
May 10 - In the Indian city of Mirut, three sepoy regiments rebelled and moved to Delhi. An anti-British sepoy uprising began.
July 16 - During the suppression of the sepoy uprising, the British army defeated the troops of Nana Sahib.
September 19 - During the suppression of the sepoy uprising, the British army took Delhi.
December 15 - Anglo-French squadron approached Canton (Second Opium War).
December 29 - Capture of Canton.

1858

January 14 - Felice Orsini, a member of the Italian secret organization Young Italy, threw a bomb into the carriage of Emperor Napoleon III in Paris. 156 people were killed and wounded, the emperor was not injured.
March 13 – Felice Orsini is executed in Paris.
March 19 - During the suppression of the sepoy uprising, the British army took Lucknow.
May 20 - During the Second Opium War, the Anglo-French squadron takes the Dagu forts at the mouth of the Baihe River and creates a threat to Beijing.
May 31 - Khabarovsk is founded.
June 13 - Tianjin Russian-Chinese treatise.
August 2 – The British Parliament passed a bill to liquidate the East India Company and place India under the control of the British crown.

1859

April 25 - the beginning of the laying of the Suez Canal, which lasted 10 years.
April 29 - The Austro-Italian-French War of 1859 begins.
May 20 - The French army defeats the Austrian army at the Battle of Montebello.
June 4 - The Austrian army is defeated at Magenta.
June 16 – Anglo-French squadron enters Baihe, Third Opium War.
June 24 – The Battle of Solferino, northern Italy, took place, the largest battle between the Italo-French combined forces and the Austrian troops during the Austro-Italian-French War of 1859. The victory of the anti-Austrian coalition.
September 7 - Big Ben clock launched in London.
November 24 – British naturalist Charles Darwin publishes his On the Origin of Species, the first exposition of Darwin's theory of evolution.

Events by years 1860 - 1868

1860

March 24 - Savoy and Nice annexed to France.
July 2 - Foundation of Vladivostok.
September 21 - Battle of Baliqiao, invaders move towards Beijing
October 5 - the capture of Beijing by the invaders
October 25 - Beijing Treaty. Britain received new territories in the Hong Kong area.
November 14 - Beijing Treaty between Russia and China. The inclusion of Primorye in Russia.
November 6 – Abraham Lincoln is elected 16th President of the United States.

1861

February 4 – The Confederate States of America is formed.
February 26 - The February Patent is issued in the Austrian Empire, strengthening the central government.
March 3 - in St. Petersburg, Emperor Alexander II signed the "Manifesto" on the abolition of serfdom.
March 17 – A new parliament proclaims the Kingdom of Italy, led by Victor Emmanuel II.
April 12 - Battle of Fort Sumter, American Civil War begins.
July 21 - The first major battle of the American Civil War took place in Virginia at the Manassas railroad station, when poorly trained Northern troops crossed the Bull Run and attacked the Southerners, but were forced to start a retreat that turned into a rout.
November 8 – American Civil War: During the naval blockade of the Confederate coast, the British steamship Trent was captured, carrying southern emissaries, which brought the United States to the brink of war with Great Britain.
December 8 - Having landed troops in the port of Veracruz, a coalition of Spain, France and England began the Intervention in Mexico.

1862

March 9 - American Civil War: the first battle of armored ships in history took place on the Hampton roadstead, off the coast of Virginia. Formally ended in a draw.
April 12 - American Civil War: The Great Railroad Race.
April 19 - Fighting begins between the French army and the Mexican.
April 25 - American Civil War: Northerners capture New Orleans.
May 5 – The Battle of Puebla took place during the Franco-Mexican War.
May 31 - Battle of Seven Pines.
June 27 - Battle of Gaines Mill.
August 30 - American Civil War: Second Battle of Bull Run, Northerners defeated.
September 17 - American Civil War: At Sharpsburg, Lee's army of 40 was attacked by McClellan's army of 70.
September 21 - A large number of French troops arrive in Mexico.
December 30 - American Civil War: Lincoln signed the "Emancipation Proclamation" of the slaves effective January 1 of the following year.

1863

January 1 - American Civil War: Decree emancipating African slaves in the United States.
January 10 - The first line of the London Underground opens.
May 3 - Second Battle of Fredericksburg.
May 5 - American Civil War: Battle of Chancellorsville, during which 130 Northerners were defeated by General Lee's 60.
May 23 – The General German Workers' Union is founded in Leipzig.
26 October – The Football Association of England is founded.
October 29 – The International Red Cross is founded in Switzerland.
November 21 - The so-called Riot of the Fourteen took place.

1864

January 1 - Adoption of the Zemstvo reform of Alexander II in the Russian Empire.
February 1 - The Danish War begins.
February 2 - The Danes emerged victorious in the Battle of Missund with the Prussians.
March 2 - peasant reform in the Kingdom of Poland.
April 22 – The United States Congress passes a law making all US banknotes read "In God We Trust".
May 25 - Repeal of the Le Chapelier law in France. Transition to the so-called "liberal empire".
August 22 - Twelve states sign the First Geneva Convention.
October 30 - The Danish War ends. Peace of Vienna concluded.
November 15 - American Civil War: Sherman begins the famous "March to the Sea".
November 20 - Adoption of the Judicial Reform of Alexander II
December 22 - American Civil War: Sherman takes Savannah.

1865

April 6 - American Civil War: Battle of Silers Creek.
April 14 - US President Abraham Lincoln is mortally wounded. died the next day, April 15.
August 29 - Former President of El Salvador Gerardo Barrios, who tried to reunite Central America, was shot dead.
October 23 - Azov Cossack army was abolished.

1866

April 8 - Prussia and Italy entered into a secret agreement, agreeing not to stop hostilities against Austria until they receive the territories they claim.
April 16 - D.V. Karakozov's failed assassination attempt on Emperor Alexander II at the gates of the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg.
May - the beginning of the Russian-Bukhara war
June 17 - The Austrian Empire declares war on Prussia. Beginning of the Austro-Prussian War.
June 20 - The Italian army invaded the Venetian region, which belonged to Austria. Beginning of the Second Austro-Italian War.
July 3 - the decisive outcome of the Austro-Prussian war, the Battle of Sadov. The Austrian army was defeated.
July 22 - Prussia and Austria sign a truce.
August 10 - Austria and Italy sign a truce.
August 23 - A peace agreement is signed in Prague, ending the Austro-Prussian-Italian War. The German Confederation has been abolished, Prussia is given the right to create a new all-German Confederation under its rule.
October 30 - During the Russian-Bukhara war of 1866-1868, a Russian detachment under the command of General D.I. Romanovsky took the Jizzakh fortress in the Bukhara Emirate.
November 24 - A law on the reform of state peasants is issued in Russia. They retained all the lands that were in their use.
December 19 - the creation of the Russian Telegraph Agency.

1867

February 8 – The Austro-Hungarian Agreement is concluded, transforming the Austrian Empire into the dualistic monarchy of Austria-Hungary.
March 30 - Ambassador of the Russian Empire to the United States Eduard Stekl signed an agreement in Washington on the sale of Russian Alaska to the United States for $ 7,2 million.
May 11 - The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is recognized as an independent state.
Canada becomes the first British dominion.
Belgrade became part of Serbia.

1868

January 27 - Restoration of the Emperor
February 9 - The first Social Democratic workers' organization is formed in Hungary.
March 20 - The French government dissolved the French Section of the First International and arrested its leadership.
May 15 - A meeting of the Romanian intelligentsia in Cluj circulated a "pronunciation", in which it rejected the union with Austria-Hungary and announced the danger threatening the "Romanian nation, language and religion."
June 24 - A law was passed in Austria-Hungary recognizing the independence of the Romanian Orthodox Church, its equality and autonomy.
June 26 - Pope Pius IX appointed December 8, 1869 for the convocation of the Ecumenical Council.
August 27 - after the publication in the Budapest newspaper "Federation" of the Romanian "pronunciamente" with the rejection of the union with Austria-Hungary, the authorities began repressions against the publishers and authors of the manifesto.
10 October óThe Ten Years' War for Cuban independence begins.
November 2 - in Paris, at the grave of deputy Boden, mass meetings were held with calls for the overthrow of the empire of Napoleon III.
December 6 - The Austrian-Hungarian law "On the equality of nationalities" is approved.

Events by years 1869 - 1879

1869

July 26 - Britain bans the Anglican Church in Ireland.
March 1 - Mendeleev proposed the first version of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements.
May 10 - Grand opening of the First U.S. Transcontinental Railroad.
November 17 - The Suez Canal is solemnly opened for navigation.
December 19 - President of Haiti, General Sylvain Salnave, fled with the remnants of his troops from the besieged and engulfed in fires of Port-au-Prince.

1870

17 February – A bill is introduced in the British Parliament to make school attendance compulsory for children aged 5 to 12.
March 21 - The French Supreme Court in Blois acquitted Prince Pierre Bonaparte of shooting the journalist Victor Noir. This caused an explosion of indignation in France.
April 21 - The adoption of the "Dogmatic Constitution of the Catholic Faith" by the First Vatican Council.
June 1 - US Census.
June 26 - Colombia and the United States sign an agreement to build the Panama Canal.
July 13 - Ems dispatch - the reason for the start of the Franco-Prussian war.
August 18 - Defeat of the French army at Gravelotte-Saint-Privat.
September 1 - Battle of Sedan, the defeat of the Napoleonic army by the Prussians.
September 6 - The government of Italy notified the new government of France that it did not consider itself bound by its previous obligations towards Rome. In response, France gave Italy complete freedom of action.
September 19 - The Prussian army begins the siege of Paris.
October 2 - the annexation of Rome to the Italian Kingdom following a popular vote in the former Papal States, completing the unification of Italy.
October 13 – Mexico declares a general amnesty.
October 27 - Marshal François Achille Bazin's army capitulates at Metz.
November 29 - The Battle of Villiers began, which lasted until December 4.
December 2 – Rome is proclaimed the capital of Italy.
December 7 - Battle of Beaugency.

1871

January 18 - In the Palace of Versailles near Paris, at the end of the Franco-Prussian war lost by the French, the creation of the German Empire was proclaimed.
January 28 - Surrender of Paris.
February 26 - preliminary peace treaty between France and Prussia.
March 18 - In Paris, the Central Committee of the National Guard took power, the government of Adolphe Thiers fled to Versailles. Beginning of the Paris Commune.
March 23 - Gaston Cremieux revolted in Marseille. Commune of Marseille proclaimed.
May 10 – Peace between France and Germany is concluded in Frankfurt am Main, ending the Franco-Prussian War.
May 28 - Fall of the Paris Commune.
August 29 - Administrative reform in Japan.
November 30 - Gaston Crémieux, leader of the Marseille Commune, was shot by a military court in Marseille.

1872

June 7 - Alexander II established the Special Presence of the Governing Senate.
July 26 - Both heads of state were assassinated in Lima.
August 14 – The Krenholm strike begins in Russia.
September 12 - The Krenholm strike is crushed by the troops.

1873

January 1 – The Gregorian calendar is adopted in Japan.
May 5 – The Scandinavian Monetary Union is concluded between Denmark and Sweden.
June 1 Cypress Hill massacre.
August 24 - between Russia and the Khiva Khanate, the Gendemian peace is concluded.

1874

May 6 - Taiwan campaign of the Imperial Japanese Army.
October 9 - The Universal Postal Union, later renamed the Universal Postal Union, is established at an international conference in Bern.
October 31 - Japan and China signed a truce, according to which the Japanese withdrew troops from Taiwan, and the Chinese paid indemnities.
December - a radical part of the Czech National Party formed its own Young Czechs party.

1875

April 25 - A Russian-Japanese treaty was signed in St. Petersburg on the transfer of South Sakhalin to the Russian Empire in exchange for eighteen islands of the Kuril chain. Thus, Sakhalin entirely departed to Russia, and the Kuril Islands to Japan.
May 26 - Foundation of the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany at a congress in Gotha. (In 1890 the party was renamed the Social Democratic Party of Germany).
December 24 - Tiligulskaya catastrophe occurred in Russia on the Odessa railway.

1876

February 26 - Treaty between Korea and Japan is signed, Korea abandons the policy of isolationism, which has lasted for over a century.
June 30 - Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire.
July 15 - Dissolution of the First International in Philadelphia.
June 25 – Alexander Bell demonstrates his telephone for the first time at the first World Electrical Exhibition in Philadelphia.

1877

January 15 - Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire conclude the secret Budapest Agreement.
April 24 - Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire. The beginning of the Russian-Turkish war.
June 13 - Zivinsky battle of the Russian-Turkish war.
July 18 - the battle of Yeni-Zagr took place.
November 18 - The Russian army stormed the fortress of Kars.

1878

May 14 - Japanese statesman and politician of the Meiji era Okubo Tosimichi was killed in Tokyo by disgruntled samurai out of revenge for the suppression of the Satsuma uprising.
June 10 - The League of Prizren is created, leading the struggle for the autonomy of Albania.
November 21 - Battle of Ali Masjid, beginning of the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
November 27 - The Central Council of the League of Prizren put forward a demand for autonomy for Albania within the Ottoman Empire.
December 2 - Battle of the Peyvar-Kotal pass.

1879

January 23 - Battle of Rorke's Drift.
April 2 - Assassination attempt on Emperor Alexander II. The terrorist Alexander Konstantinovich Solovyov fired 5 shots at the emperor from a revolver, but missed.
May 26 - Second Anglo-Afghan War: an Anglo-Afghan treaty is signed in the Afghan village of Gandamak.
October 3 - military coup in the Republic of Haiti.
October 6 - Battle of Charasiab (Second Anglo-Afghan War).
October 7 - the conclusion of the Austro-German treaty on joint defense against Russia.
October 21 - American inventor Thomas Alva Edison tests his first incandescent light bulb.

Events by years 1880 - 1889

1880

July 27 - The defeat of the British brigade by the Afghans in the battle of Mainvand.
September 1 - Battle of Kandahar, the last battle of the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
November 3 - French Navy officer Pierre de Brazza establishes the post of Nkuna (now Brazzaville, the capital of the Republic of the Congo).

1881

March 1 - Alexander II was mortally wounded on the embankment of the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg by a bomb thrown by Ignaty Grinevitsky, a member of the People's Will. Accession to the throne of Emperor Alexander III.
March 26 - Romania is proclaimed a kingdom.
June 18 - the Russian-Austrian-German treaty was signed, resuming the Union of Three Emperors for 6 years.
November 4 - Austria-Hungary introduced conscription in Herzegovina and Bosnia, which led to the 1882 uprising.

1882

July 11 - The British squadron carried out a devastating bombardment of Alexandria. The Anglo-Egyptian War began.
July 15 - British troops occupied Alexandria, abandoned by the Egyptian army and the population.
September 13 - British troops defeat the Egyptian army near Tell el-Kebir.
September 14 - British troops enter Cairo. Ahmed Orabi surrendered.

1883

March 20 - The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property is adopted.
August 26 - The eruption of the volcano Krakatoa (Indonesia) began, which led to the death of about 40 thousand people.
October 30 - Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Romania signed a treaty against the Russian Empire.

1884

March 21 - A law on the freedom of trade union organizations is passed in France, legalizing trade unions.
April 4 – Armistice between Bolivia and Chile is signed, ending the Second Pacific War.
May 11 - France and China sign the Convention of Friendship and Good Neighborliness in Tianjin, ending their first military clash in the struggle for North Vietnam.
July 5 - The German Empire establishes a protectorate over Togo.
July 14 - The German Empire establishes a protectorate over Cameroon.
December 15 - The Berlin Conference of 14 European states on the division of Africa opens.

1885

February 28 - President Justo Rufino Barrios of Guatemala issues a decree on the unification of Guatemala.
March 10 - Mexico sent a warning note to Guatemala demanding that it abandon its plans to unify Central America.
September - the reunification of Eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria.
December 28 - The founding congress opens in Bombay, at which the Indian National Congress party was created.

1886

January 1 – Upper Burma is annexed by the British Empire. Beginning of colonial rule in Burma.
March 18 - Belgian general strike of 1886 begins.
May 1 - American workers go on strike demanding an 8-hour day. The strike and accompanying demonstration ended in a bloody clash with the police.
May 8 – John Stith Pemberton invents Coca-Cola.
December 17 – Thomas Stevens completes the first cycle around the world in Yokohama.

1887

March 13 - in St. Petersburg on Nevsky Prospekt, Narodnaya Volya Vasily Generalov was arrested, intending to make an attempt on the life of Emperor Alexander III.
June 18 - A secret "Reinsurance Treaty" between Russia and Germany was signed in Berlin, according to which the parties promised each other benevolent neutrality in the event of an attack by a third country.
September 28 - A catastrophic flood began in China, caused by the flood of the Yellow River (Huang He).

1888

May 13 - Slavery is abolished in Brazil.
August 14 - The founding congress of the General Union of the Workers of Spain opens in Barcelona.
October 9 – The Washington Monument is officially opened to the general public in Washington.
October 14 - The first motion picture in the history of cinema was shot - Roundhay Garden Scene.

1889

January 30 - The corpses of Crown Prince Rudolf and his mistress, Baroness Maria von Vechera, were found in Mayerling Castle.
June 22 – Germany passes a law on insurance of workers against incapacity for work.
August 19 - Anglo-Portuguese conflict.
September 23 - Fusajiro Yamauchi founded Nintendo.
April 2 – The Eiffel Tower opens in Paris. It was built as a symbol and was used as the entrance arch to the 1889 Paris World's Fair.

Events by years 1890 - 1899

1890

March 2 - A community of sisters of the Red Cross is established in Arkhangelsk.
March 20 – Otto von Bismarck, first chancellor of the united German Empire, resigns. It is believed that Bismarck resigned due to a conflict with the young Kaiser Wilhelm II, who took the throne in 1888.
May 1 - Mass May Day demonstration in Vienna.
June 12 - Zemstvo regulations are introduced in Russia.
December 7 - The creation of the Social Democratic Party of Hungary.

1891

March 9 - Alexander III signed a nominal imperial decree given to the Minister of Railways on the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.
October 11 - The world's first open-air ethnographic museum "Skansen" opens in Stockholm.
Autumn is the beginning of a large-scale (1891-1892) famine in Russia.

1892

January 20 - First basketball game (Springfield, Massachusetts, USA)
January 29 – The Coca-Cola Company is founded.
March 15 – Liverpool FC is founded.

1893

May 1 - Mass demonstrations were held in the large industrial cities of Austria-Hungary demanding the introduction of universal suffrage.
May 5 - Panic of 1893: stock market crash and the beginning of an economic depression in the United States.
September 4 - The first Jewish Women's Congress opens in Chicago.
September 29 - Battle of Espinillo (Argentina).

1894

February 5 – Anarchist Auguste Vaillant is guillotined in France after throwing a bomb into the parliamentary chamber.
April 22 – Peasants' uprising in Hodmezyovassarhely takes place in Hungary. A state of siege has been declared throughout the Alföld.
June 24 - At an exhibition in Lyon, the anarchist Caserio mortally wounded French President Sadi Carnot.
July 23 - Japanese soldiers stage a coup and bring a pro-Japanese government to power in Korea.
July 25 - With the sinking of the steamer Gao Sheng with Chinese soldiers, Japan begins military operations against China in Korea. Beginning of the Sino-Japanese War.
July 27 - The new Korean government formally asks Japan to help expel Chinese troops from the country.
October 24 - Japan shifts military operations to Northeast China.
December 10 – Hungary passes a civil marriage law.

1895

April 17 - The Treaty of Shimonoseki is signed, ending the Sino-Japanese War. The Qing Empire transferred the island of Taiwan and the Pescador Islands to the Japanese Empire, and Korea was torn away from China, which gained independence.
June 20 - The Kiel Canal is put into operation in Germany.
December 7 - During the outbreak of the first Italo-Ethiopian war, the Ethiopian troops of Ras Makonnen defeated the Italian units in the battle of Amba-Alagi.

1896

March 1 – During the First Italo-Ethiopian War, XNUMX Italian troops are defeated at the Battle of Adua.
April 6 - The first modern Summer Olympic Games.
May 26 - Coronation of Nicholas II.
May 30 - Crush on the Khodynka field.
August 17 - The Klondike Gold Rush begins.

1897

February 9 - 1st All-Russian population census.
April 17 - The Ottoman Empire declared war on Greece, which supported the uprising on the island of Crete.
June 6 - Wimberg Congress of the Social Democratic Party of Austria begins.
November 25 - Spain granted autonomy to Cuba, but the war for the liberation of the island continued.

1898

March 27 - the signing in Beijing of the Russian-Chinese Convention, which legally formalized the lease of Port Arthur and Dalny by the Russian Empire.
April 21 is the official date for the start of the Spanish-American War.
August 13 - American troops take Manila.
September 2 - Battle of Omdurman.
September 21 - Empress Cixi launches a coup d'état in China.
December 10 - Treaty of Paris between Spain and the United States. Ended the Spanish-American War.

1899

January 1 - Spanish rule ends in Cuba.
February 4 - The Philippine-American War begins.
October 11 - The Second Boer War begins.
October 21 - Battle of Elandslaagte takes place during the Second Boer War.
November 28 - Battle of the Modder River during the Second Boer War.
December 1 - Philippine-American War: Filipino rebels begin a two-day defense of the Tila Pass.
December 11 - The Battle of Magersfontein during the Second Boer War ended in British defeat.

Events by years 1900 - 1909

1900

February 10 - Lenin returned after 3 years from Siberian exile, leaving Shushenskoye.
March 7 - During the Second Boer War, the Battle of Poplar Grove took place.
March 10 - The Battle of Dreyfontein took place during the Second Boer War.
July - Chinese pogrom in Blagoveshchensk.
August 6 - The first telephone line opens between France and the German Empire.
1 October - 97 drilling rigs and approximately 8 tons of oil are destroyed in a catastrophic fire in Baku.
12 November – World's Fair ends in Paris. The organizers counted approximately 47 million visitors within 7 months.
November 13 – Women are allowed to practice law in France.

1901

January 10 - Oil fields are discovered in the state of Texas (USA).
March 23 - Philippine-American War: Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo y Fami is captured by American troops.
April 19 - Philippine-American War: Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo y Fami called on his supporters to surrender.
May 20 - workers of the Obukhov plant in St. Petersburg clash with the police and troops.
December 7 - Anglo-Italian agreement on the borders of Sudan is concluded.

1902

January 25 – The death penalty is abolished in Russia.
January 30 - the conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese alliance.
February 16 - General strike in Barcelona.
April 15 - the assassination of the Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia D.S. Sipyagin by the Socialist-Revolutionary Stepan Balmashev.
May 20 - The Cuban Republic is officially proclaimed in Havana, the national flag is raised and the US flag is lowered. The evacuation of the American army began.
May 31 - Peace is signed, ending the Boer War.

1903

June 11 - "May coup". Serbian army officers killed the king of Serbia, Alexander Obrenovic. The Karageorgievich dynasty came to power.
August 2 - the beginning of the Ilinden uprising in Macedonia.
November 3 - Panama secedes from Colombia.
November 6 - The United States recognizes the independence of Panama.

1904

February 9 - Beginning of the Russo-Japanese War.
April 8 - Anglo-French agreement on the division of spheres of influence in Africa. A major step in the formation of the Entente.
May 1 - The first significant battle of the Russo-Japanese War took place - the Battle of the Yalu River.
October 1 - the working movement of trains along the Circum-Baikal Railway began.

1905

January 22 - "Bloody Sunday", the beginning of the First Russian Revolution.
April 30 - Russian Emperor Nicholas II issued a Decree on strengthening the principles of religious tolerance. For the first time in the history of Russia, it declares freedom of religion and the freedom to change religious denominations for Christians.
May 28 - Tsushima battle of the Russian and Japanese squadron, the complete defeat of the Russian 2nd Pacific squadron.
May 15 – Las Vegas, Nevada, USA is founded.
June 7 - Norway terminated its personal union with Sweden and proclaimed itself an independent state.
June 16 - the execution of a peaceful demonstration of workers during a strike on the Talka River in Ivanovo-Voznesensk.
June 21-24 - uprising in the city of Lodz in the Kingdom of Poland.
June 27 - the uprising of sailors on the battleship Potemkin.
July 8 - the end of the uprising on the battleship Potemkin.
August 31 - In the Swedish city of Karlstad, negotiations began between Norway and Sweden on the termination of the Swedish-Norwegian union.
September 23 - In the Swedish city of Karlstad, negotiations between Norway and Sweden on the termination of the Swedish-Norwegian Union ended with the initialing of the Karlstad Agreement.
December 20 - armed uprising in Moscow.

1906

January 9 - in Vladivostok, sailors of the Siberian crew captured a warehouse with weapons.
January 26 - The uprising in Vladivostok is suppressed.
March 8 - The Council of Workers' Deputies of Baku was dispersed.
November 9 - the beginning of the agrarian reform of P. A. Stolypin. Decree on the withdrawal of peasants from the community.
November 23 - The first issue of the regular Belarusian newspaper Nasha Niva was published in Vilnius.

1907

January 26 – Austria-Hungary introduces universal suffrage for men over the age of 24.
March 1 - Nicaragua declares war on Honduras.
March 5 - political strike in Baku.
June 16 - Dissolution of the Second State Duma (June XNUMX coup). In fact, the completion of the first revolution in the Russian Empire.
September 9 - The Imperial Russian Military Historical Society is established in St. Petersburg.
October 16 - the secret Petersburg protocol is signed between the Russian Empire and Germany.
October 17 - Red flags are raised on three destroyers in Vladivostok. The destroyer "Skory" opened fire on the city. The uprising is crushed.

1908

June 30 - Tunguska phenomenon.
July 3 - the beginning of the Young Turk revolution.
October 7 - Austria-Hungary announces the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Beginning of the Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909.
November 28 - The Amur River Flotilla is formed.

1909

January 1 – The first pensions are paid in the UK.
April 14-27 - the massacre of Armenians in the vilayets of Adana and Allepo, organized by the Turkish authorities. About 21 thousand people were killed.
July 25 - Louis Blériot makes the first flight across the English Channel.
July 26 - in Spanish Catalonia, in connection with the mobilization of reservists, unrest broke out, which spread to Barcelona, Madrid, Zaragoza and other cities. Blood Week has begun.
July 31 – Anarchist-led riots called Bloody Week are suppressed in Spain.

Events by years 1910 - 1913

1910

January 31 - The All-Russian National Union party is created in the Russian Empire.
March 6 - In Berlin, the mounted police broke up a workers' demonstration demanding the introduction of universal suffrage in Prussia.
March 10 – Slavery is banned in China.
June 5 - in Kyiv, the first Russian-built airplane, which was created by A. S. Kudashev, took off.
August 22 - Japan annexes Korea.

1911

February 27 - The French government led by Aristide Briand resigns.
March 25 - the murder of Andrei Yushchinsky - a student of the preparatory class of the Kiev-Sofia Theological School.
April 27 - Huang Huang uprising in China.
May 14 - András Achim, leader of the Hungarian Peasants' Party, was killed by the Zhilinski brothers in Bekesczab.
May 31 - The British liner Titanic, the largest passenger steamship in the world, is launched.
June 27 – French government formed by Joseph Cailliaud.
July 1 - Beginning of the Agadir Crisis.
July 9 - French Ambassador to Berlin Jules Cambon offered Germany to resolve the Agadir crisis by transferring part of the French Congo to Germany. There was no direct answer.
July 31 - Rallies in support of the autonomy of Albania began in Vlora and Berat.
August 18 - Negotiations between Germany and France to resolve the Agadir crisis are interrupted, Europe is on the brink of war.
August 21 - Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa is stolen from the Louvre.
September 29 - Italy begins hostilities against the Ottoman Empire. The Italo-Turkish war began.
October 5 - Italian amphibious assaults occupied Tripoli and Homs in Turkish Tripolitania.
October 14 - Italian troops occupied Tobruk in Turkish Cyrenaica.
October 21 - Italian troops occupied Benghazi.
November 25 – Prominent Marxist theorist Paul Lafargue and his wife, Karl Marx's daughter Laura Lafargue, commit suicide in Paris.
November 28 - The German cruiser Berlin, which replaced the gunboat Panther, was ordered to leave Agadir and return to Germany. End of the Agadir Crisis.
December 2 - In China, the rebel troops took Nanjing. This caused more than ten provinces to secede from Qing China.

1912

January 1 - Sun Yat-sen solemnly entered Nanjing.
January 20 - Nicholas II approved the law "On the equalization of rights with Finnish citizens of other Russian subjects."
February 12 - The Qing Dynasty abdicates in China and the monarchy is abolished.
March 10 – The National Assembly convenes in Nanjing, adopting a provisional constitution and proclaiming Yuan Shikai provisional president of the Republic of China.
March 26 - Serbia and Bulgaria signed a treaty of friendship and alliance with a secret appendix on the division of the territory, which was supposed to be wrested from Turkey in the upcoming war. On May 25, the treaty was supplemented by a military convention.
April 6 - A secret expedition of 1912-1913 by V.K. Arsenyev started to fight hunghuz and poachers in the Ussuri Territory.
April 15 – The British liner Titanic is wrecked by an iceberg. 1496 people died.
April 17 - Lena execution - the execution of workers by government troops in the gold mines on the Lena River.
May 1 - Italo-Turkish War: The Italian fleet bombarded the Dardanelles and tried to enter the Straits. In response, Turkey closed the passage through the Dardanelles to all foreign ships. Italy withdrew her fleet and, under pressure from the great powers, on May 18, Turkey opened the strait to merchant ships of neutral states.
August 25 - The Kuomintang Party is formed in China by supporters of Sun Yat-sen.
September 4 - Uprising on the Greek island of Samos against the Turkish occupation.
October 15 - Italo-Turkish War: A secret preliminary treaty is signed in Uschi (Switzerland) between Italy and the Ottoman Empire.
October 18 - Italo-Turkish War: A public treaty between Italy and the Ottoman Empire was signed in Lausanne, ending the Italo-Turkish War. Turkey gave autonomy to Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, effectively transferring them under the control of Italy.
November 27 - France and Spain sign an agreement partitioning Morocco.
November 28 - Albania proclaims independence from the Ottoman Empire.
December 2 – Chancellor of the German Empire Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg addressed the Reichstag and declared that Germany would enter the war on the side of Austria-Hungary if it was attacked that would threaten its existence. He also confirmed German interests in the Balkans.
December 17 - The London conference of the ambassadors of Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Russia and France recognized the autonomy of Albania.
December 18 - At a meeting of the Geological Society of London, Charles Dawson announced the discovery of the skull of Piltdown Man, which turned out to be one of the most famous hoaxes of the XNUMXth century.

1913

February 9 - The Chamorro-Weitzel Treaty is signed between the United States and Nicaragua.
February 11 - The secret expedition of 1912-1913 ended.
May 30 - Treaty of London, ending the First Balkan War.
July 15 - Huang Xing leads an uprising in Jiangsu province led by Li Lejun.
September 23 - Roland Garros makes the first non-stop flight across the Mediterranean.
November 10 - Beilis was acquitted in Kyiv.
December 23 - Woodrow Wilson signs the Federal Reserve Act into law.

Events by years 1914 - 1917

1914

January 1 – The British colonies in the river areas are merged into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.
January 22 - The first provisional government of independent Albania, headed by Ismail Kemal Bey, resigned. Feyzi Alizoti became the new Prime Minister of Albania.
February 28 - Proclamation of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus by ethnic Greeks.
March 1 - The entry of the Republic of China into the Universal Postal Union.
March 14 - Serbian-Turkish peace treaty is signed.
April 21 - US troops landed in the port of Veracruz (Mexico).
April 22 - Mexico suspends diplomatic relations with the United States.
June 12 - Greek Genocide: Massacre of Ottoman Greeks in Phocaea by Turkish irregulars.
June 28 - Sarajevo assassination: the death of the heir to the Austrian throne Franz Ferdinand at the hands of the Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip provoked the July Crisis.
July 23 - Austria-Hungary ultimatum to Serbia in connection with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
July 28 - Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia, beginning World War I.
July 29 - Russia begins mobilization in the districts bordering Austria-Hungary. The next day, general mobilization is announced.
August 1 - In response to the refusal to stop mobilization, Germany declares war on Russia.
August 3 - Germany declares war on France.
August 6 - Austria-Hungary declares war on the Russian Empire.
August 23 - Japan declares war on Germany.
September 21 - after the victories of the Russian army in Galicia, the East Polish Legion of the Austro-Hungarian army disbanded itself.
November 5 - Great Britain announced the annexation of the island of Cyprus, which was part of the Ottoman Empire.
November 11 - The German army begins the Lodz operation in order to prevent the advance of the Russian army into Germany.
December 17 - An international commission established the borders of Albania.
December 18 - Egypt is declared a British protectorate.
December 28 - Italian troops entered the Albanian city of Vlore.

1915

January 18 - The Great Empire of Japan makes "Twenty-One Demands" to China.
February 7 - Beginning of the August operation.
February 14 - The First Conference of Entente Socialists is held in London.
March 22 - after a long siege, the Przemysl fortress was taken by the Russian army. Over 100 Austrians surrendered.
April 22 - For the first time in history, the German command used chemical weapons, releasing the poisonous chlorine gas on the British positions near Ypres.
April 24 - the beginning of the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire.
April 26 - The Entente countries and Italy signed the secret Treaty of London partitioning Albania.
May 9 - The Chinese government, led by Yuan Shikai, basically accepted Japan's "Twenty-one Demands."
May 23 - Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.
June 7 - the trilateral Russian-Chinese-Mongolian Kyakhta agreement is concluded.
August 6 - "Attack of the Dead" under the Osovets fortress.
August 12 - "Disappearance of the Norfolk Regiment" - a controversial event that occurred during the attack on Turkish positions during the Dardanelles operation.
October 19 - unrest of sailors on the Russian battleship "Gangut" began. Suppressed after three days.
December 12 - Chinese President Yuan Shikai issued a decree accepting the imperial title.

1916

February 21 - The Battle of Verdun begins with a German offensive against French troops.
March 22 - General Yuan Shikai renounced the title of Emperor of China during the civil war and again became known as the President of China.
April 1 - German airship LZ-48 is shot down over London.
May 1 - Anti-war demonstration on Potsdamer Platz in Berlin.
May 31 - Battle of Jutland - the largest naval battle of the First World War between the German and British fleets.
July 1 - on the Western Front, after a week of artillery preparation, the British and French armies launched an offensive against the positions of the German troops, which developed into the Battle of the Somme (lasted until mid-November) - one of the largest battles of the First World War.
July 4 - the beginning of the Central Asian uprising.
August 4 - An agreement was signed in Washington between the United States and Denmark, according to which Denmark ceded to the United States the islands of St. Thomas, St. John and Santa Cruz in the group of the Virgin Islands for $ 25 million.
August 27 - Italy declares war on Germany.
November 3 - British protectorate established over Qatar.
December 29 - the assassination of Grigory Rasputin.

1917

January 27 - Military coup in Costa Rica.
February 1 - The German Empire declares unrestricted submarine warfare.
March 8 - The February Democratic Revolution begins in the Russian Empire.
16 - mass strike in Berlin and other German cities.
May 9 - Nicaragua declares war on Germany and Austria-Hungary.
June 29 - Greece enters the war on the side of the Entente.
July 19 - adoption by the German Reichstag of a resolution on peace "by agreement".
July 31 - November 10 - the operation of the British troops at Ypres.
September 9 - Kornilov's speech began.
October 10 - A general strike of the workers of the Baku oil-industrial region began, which lasted until October 26.
October 25 - The Military Revolutionary Committee is established under the Petrograd Soviet.
October 31 - At the Battle of Caporetto, the Italian armies were driven back to the line of the Tagliamento River.
November 9 - The Italian army, supported by the Anglo-French divisions, stopped the offensive of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies at the turn of the Piave River. The Battle of Caporetto is over.
November 25 - People's demonstrations in Berlin demanding peace.
December 23 - Anglo-French agreement on "spheres of action" in Russia.
December 31 - The Council of People's Commissars decided to submit to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee the issue of recognizing the state independence of the Republic of Finland.

Events by years 1918 - 1924

1918

January 7 - the transformation of the Alekseevskaya organization into the Volunteer Army.
January 14 – A general strike begins in Austria-Hungary.
18 January – A Soviet of Workers' Deputies is established in Vienna.
January 22 - the proclamation of the complete independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic.
January 27 - The beginning of the civil war in Finland.
January 29 - An uprising against the Central Rada began in Kyiv. On February 4, it was crushed.
February 1 - with an uprising of sailors on the cruiser "St. George", an uprising began on 40 ships of the Austro-Hungarian navy in the Bay of Kotor.
February 12 - The Turkish army entered the Transcaucasus.
February 23 - The Transcaucasian Seim is convened.
February 24 - The Estonian Declaration of Independence is published.
March 3 - The government of Soviet Russia concluded a separate peace in Brest-Litovsk with the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
March 10 - The Soviet government left Petrograd.
March 30 - Interethnic clashes began in Baku.
April 5 - landing of Japanese troops in Vladivostok.
April 25 - The Baku Council of People's Commissars is formed.
May 9 - Workers of the Izhora plant in Kolpino were shot.
May 15 - The First Soviet-Finnish War begins.
May 29 - Closing of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum.
July 2 - Anglo-American troops, moving south from Murmansk, occupied Kem.
July 11 - The Lithuanian government announces the creation of the Kingdom of Lithuania.
July 28 - the defeat of the White forces near Chardzhui.
August 20 - Anglo-American troops occupied Shenkursk.
29 August – The Communist Party of Finland is founded.
September 20 - 26 Baku commissars were shot.
September 26 - the beginning of the general offensive of the Entente armies on the Western Front.
October 30 - Revolution in Austria.
November 11 - The Armistice of Compiègne was signed in the railway staff car of the French Marshal Foch - the First World War ended.

1919

February 25 - In the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the remnants of serfdom are abolished by decree.
March 2 - The First Congress of the Communist International opens.
March 11 - British troops fire on a demonstration in Cairo. The next day the uprising began.
April 13 - Amritsar massacre.
April 29 - German troops and units of Freikorps launched a counteroffensive near Munich.
May 5 - The final suppression of pockets of communist resistance in Munich.
June 28 - The Treaty of Versailles is signed, officially ending the First World War.
August 6 - fall of the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
November 27 - Treaty of Neuilly signed.
December 27 - the beginning of the defense of the Crimea by the Russian troops of the corps of General Ya. A. Slashchev from the attempts of the Red Army forces to break through to the peninsula.

1920

January 31 - Bolshevik uprising in Vladivostok. Formation of the Primorsky Regional Zemstvo Council.
February 13 - The London Declaration of the Council of the League of Nations satisfied the request of the Swiss side to release it from the obligation to participate in military sanctions.
February 24 - Adolf Hitler for the first time voiced the famous 25 points of the NSDAP program.
April 1 - The official program of the NSDAP, the so-called "25 Points" Program, was approved.
May 16 - Joan of Arc is canonized by the Catholic Church.
June 4 - Signing of the Treaty of Trianon.
July 12 - A Soviet-Lithuanian treaty is concluded, recognizing Vilna and the surrounding region as part of Lithuania.
August 10 - the signing of the Treaty of Sevres between the Entente countries and Turkey.
August 13 - The Battle of Warsaw began, lasting until August 25.
October 28 - Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan sign the so-called "Paris Protocol" with Romania.
November 27 - the beginning of the Slutsk uprising.
December 22 - The XNUMXth All-Russian Congress of Soviets takes place in Moscow.

1921

February 16 - Soviet troops crossed the southern border of Georgia.
February 19 - an agreement on a military alliance between Poland and France.
March 16 - The Soviet-Turkish Treaty of Friendship and Brotherhood is concluded.
March 21 - March uprising of German workers in Central Germany.
May 23 – Permanent Reichswehr established in Germany.
July 22 - The RSFSR sent a special note to the governments of Sweden and Finland protesting against the intention to resolve the issue of the Aland Islands without the participation of Soviet Russia.
July 26 - Rif War: During a five-day battle near Annual, the troops of Abd al-Krim defeated the Spanish army of General Manuel Fernandez Sylvester.
July 29 - Adolf Hitler becomes chairman of the National Socialist German Workers' Party.
August 23 - the beginning of the battle of Sakarya - the turning point of the second Greco-Turkish war.
October 20 - The Convention on the Demilitarization and Neutralization of the Åland Islands is signed in Geneva.
December 6 – The British-Irish Treaty is signed in London. End of the Irish War of Independence.
December 23 - The XNUMXth All-Russian Congress of Soviets was held in Moscow.

1922

February 28 - Great Britain abolishes the protectorate over Egypt.
April 16 - Treaty of Rapallo between the RSFSR and Germany.
July 24 - The League of Nations, by 52 votes, gave Great Britain a mandate to govern Palestine with the aim of recreating a "national home for the Jewish people."
October 24 - Benito Mussolini demanded the inclusion of the Nazis in the government of Italy.
October 30 - In Italy, the troops of Benito Mussolini entered the capital, completing the "camp on Rome."
October 31 – Benito Mussolini is appointed Prime Minister of Italy.
November 20 - The last public speech of V. I. Lenin.
December 6 - The split of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland into two independent states.
December 30 - The First All-Union Congress of Soviets was held in Moscow, which approved the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR.

1923

February 4 - After Turkey's refusal to accept the terms of the peace treaty, negotiations at the Lausanne Conference are interrupted.
March 15 - In Paris, a conference of the ambassadors of Great Britain, Italy and Japan, chaired by a member of the French government, assigned Vilnius and the adjacent part of Lithuania to Poland.
July 6 - The Central Executive Committee of the USSR approved the first coat of arms of the USSR.
July 24 - The Treaty of Lausanne is signed between Turkey and the countries of the Entente, which defines the modern borders of Turkey, as well as the convention on the regime of the straits.
August 31 - Italy captures the island of Corfu.
September 23 - The September Uprising begins in Bulgaria.
October 23 - The Hamburg Uprising begins in Germany.
November 6 - Krakow Uprising begins in Poland. Stopped the next day.
8 November - NSDAP beer coup in Munich to overthrow the Bavarian government.

1924

January 21 - The "leader of the world proletariat" V.I. Lenin.
January 27 - V. I. Lenin is buried in the Mausoleum, on Red Square.
June 10 - Socialist Giacomo Matteotti is kidnapped and killed by the Nazis in Rome. The assassination caused opposition parties to leave parliament.
July 12 - The US Army leaves the Dominican Republic, which was occupied in 1916.
September 15 - The anti-Romanian Tatarbunary uprising broke out.
November 22 - Britain issues an ultimatum to Egypt.
December 24 - Coup in Albania.

Events by years 1925 - 1929

1925

January 1 - The capital of Norway, Christiania, is renamed Oslo.
January 21 - Albania is proclaimed a republic.
February 2 - Leonard Seppala and his dogs Togo and Balto save the town of Nome from a diphtheria epidemic.
April 10 - the city of Tsaritsyn is renamed into the city of Stalingrad.
April 17 - The unified Communist Party of Korea is established.
May 30 - A Chinese demonstration is shot in Shanghai, which marked the beginning of the May Thirtieth Movement.
June 17 - Protocol on the Prohibition of the Use of Poisonous, Asphyxiating and Other Similar Gases and Biological Means in War is signed in Geneva.
December 1 - The Locarno Treaties are signed in London, establishing the status quo on the issue of borders in Europe.
December 28 - the death of the poet Sergei Yesenin in the Angleterre hotel.

1926

April 23 - The Berlin Treaty between the USSR and Germany is signed.
May 15 - coup d'état in Poland, establishment of an authoritarian regime.
September 28 - Non-aggression pact signed between the USSR and Lithuania.
November 27 - Italy and the Republic of Albania sign a Pact of Friendship and Security, effectively restoring the Italian protectorate over Albania.
December 23 - US intervention in Nicaragua.

1927

January 29 - With the appointment of Wilhelm Marx as German Chancellor, the government crisis in Germany ended.
January 30 - Bloody clashes between workers' demonstrators and Austrian National Socialists took place in Schattendorf (Austria).
January 31 - The period of Allied military control over Germany ends.
February 20 - The General Confederation of Labor of Italy is illegally re-established.
March 24 - US and British warships bombard Nanjing.
May 26 - Great Britain annulled the trade agreement and severed diplomatic relations with the USSR.
October 16 - A gradual transition to a 7-hour working day is announced in the USSR.
November 14 - Leon Trotsky and Grigory Zinoviev are expelled from the CPSU(b).
December 14 - Severance of diplomatic relations between China and the USSR.

1928

January 29 - Germany and the Republic of Lithuania agree to refer the controversial issue of Memel to arbitration.
February 20 - British-led self-government is established in Transjordan.
March 17 — The XNUMXth Profintern Congress opens in Moscow.
April 21 - French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand proposed a draft international treaty outlawing war.
September 6 - The USSR joined the Briand-Kellogg Pact to resolve international conflicts by peaceful means.
December 6 - The beginning of the conflict between Bolivia and Paraguay.
December 24 - Benito Mussolini approved the Program for Comprehensive Land Reclamation.
December 31 - Raymond Poincaré makes an unsuccessful attempt to resign as Prime Minister of France.

1929

January 31 - Leon Trotsky is expelled from the USSR.
February 6 - Germany approves the Kellogg-Briand Pact.
May 20 - Japan withdraws its troops from the Shandong Peninsula.
July 24 - Briand-Kellogg Pact enters into force.
September 19 - In the United States, the price of shares on the New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street reaches a maximum value.
November 21 - The "law on defectors" is adopted in the USSR.
December 6 – Equal voting rights for women are introduced in Turkey.

Events by years 1930 - 1936

1930

January 7 - The operation of the phototelegraph communication line between Great Britain and Germany began.
January 28 - In Spain, having lost the support of the military, the dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera resigned. The new government was formed by General Damaso Berenguer.
March 27 – The government of Hermann Müller resigns in Germany as the Social Democrats oppose planned cuts in unemployment benefits.
April 22 - The United States, Great Britain, France, Japan and Italy sign the Treaty on the disarmament of the navies and the limitation of the number of submarines and aircraft carriers at the London Naval Conference.
May 24 – Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini calls for a revision of the Treaty of Versailles.
August 30 – Parliament dissolved in Poland.
4 October – Brazil undergoes a liberal revolution and the military seeks to thwart President-elect Julio Prestes.
October 30 - Turkey and Greece sign an agreement on the exchange of population groups in Ankara.
November 1 – Anti-communist legislation passed in Finland.
December 30 - The Scandinavian states, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg signed agreements in Oslo prohibiting the unilateral increase in customs tariffs.

1931

January 26 – Mahatma Gandhi is released from prison in India to negotiate with the government.
February 20 - In Germany, within the Nazi movement, a rebellion by Walter Stennes took place.
May 28 – In China, members of the opposition in the ranks of the Kuomintang form another government in Guangzhou.
July 9 - In Germany, the leader of the Nazi Party, Adolf Hitler, and the leader of the German National Party, Alfred Hugenberg, agree on cooperation.
September 12 - Mexico joins the League of Nations.
October 20 – The Defense of the Republic Act is passed in Spain.
December 2 - A military coup in El Salvador.
December 11 - Japan renounces the gold backing of its currency.

1932

January 22 - The Communist Party of El Salvador started an uprising in the country. The uprising is put down by the army.
January 28 - The Imperial Japanese Army launched an operation to capture Shanghai.
February 2 — The Geneva Conference on Disarmament begins in the Swiss city of Geneva.
March 1 - a new state appeared on the world map - the Great Manchurian Empire.
May 4 - The USSR and Estonia signed a non-aggression pact and a peaceful resolution of conflicts.
June 1 - General Kurt von Schleicher takes over as War Minister of the Weimar Republic in Germany.
June 24 - A revolution takes place in Thailand.
July 20 - In Germany, the coalition government of Prussia was dissolved by decision of Chancellor Franz von Papen.
September - A new state appeared in the Middle East - Saudi Arabia.
December - The so-called Emu War took place in Australia.

1933

January 30 - NSDAP leader Adolf Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany.
February 27 - A fire breaks out in the German Reichstag in Berlin.
February 28 – An emergency decree is issued in Germany, abolishing freedom of the individual, speech, press, assembly and association.
March 8 – Freedom of the press and freedom of assembly are abolished in Austria.
March 23 - The Reichstag of Germany adopted the "Law for the elimination of the plight of the people and the state", which transferred to the Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler for 4 years a number of legislative functions of the parliament. The adoption of the law was the final stage in the seizure of power by the National Socialists in Germany.
April 26 – The Gestapo is established in Germany.
May 26 - The Austrian government banned the Communist Party of Austria.
June 22 - The Social Democratic Party of Germany is dissolved.
July 4 - The Catholic Party of Bavaria, the Center Party and the People's Party dissolve themselves in Germany.
July 14 - The NSDAP is declared the only party in Germany.
September 2 - in Rome, Benito Mussolini and USSR Plenipotentiary V.P. Potemkin signed the Non-Aggression and Neutrality Pact between Italy and the USSR.
September 21 - The Leipzig Trial begins in Germany over the Reichstag fire.
December 23 - The Leipzig Trial in the case of the Reichstag fire ended. The Bulgarian communist Georgy Dimitrov, who was among the accused, was acquitted.

1934

January 14 - Military coup in Cuba.
February 6 - in France, supporters of the right-wing organizations "Combat Crosses", "Action Francaise", and others attacked the Bourbon Palace, where Parliament was sitting. The police were forced to open fire. Édouard Daladier's cabinet resigned on 7 February.
March 17 – Austria, Hungary and Italy sign the Protocols of Rome, under which Austria and Hungary pledged to coordinate their foreign policy with Italy.
April 11 - Chancellor of Germany Adolf Hitler met on the cruiser "Germany" with the commanders of the military branches. It was decided that in the event of the death of Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, Hitler would take his place.
April 16 - the highest degree of distinction was established in the USSR - the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.
May 15 - The coup d'état in Latvia. The government of Karlis Ulmanis came to power.
May 19 - coup in Bulgaria, carried out by organizations of the Military Union.
June 30 - Night of the Long Knives.
July 25 - an attempted coup d'état in Austria, arranged by local Nazis.
August 2 - Death of Paul von Hindenburg. Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler becomes and. about. Reich President of Germany before the plebiscite.
August 19 - At a plebiscite in Germany, 90% of voters approved the combination of the posts of Reich Chancellor and Reich President by Adolf Hitler. The post of Reich President was abolished, Hitler was proclaimed "Führer and Reich Chancellor of Germany." The regime of the NSDAP dictatorship is finally established in the country.
September 11 - Germany announced its refusal to participate in the Eastern Pact proposed by France and the USSR.

1935

March 1 - The return of the Saar region to German control.
March 16 - Adolf Hitler announces the adoption of the "Law on the creation of the armed forces" and the beginning of the rearmament of Germany, in violation of the Versailles Treaty of 1919.
September 15 - The Nuremberg Racial Laws are passed.
October 3 - The Italian army under the command of Marshal Pietro Badoglio invades Ethiopia. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War began.
December 9 – The anti-Japanese student "December 9 Movement" begins in China.

1936

February 29 - Unfortunate Young Officers Putsch in Japan.
March 7 - Nazi Germany unilaterally terminates the Locarno Treaties of 1925.
May 5 - Italian troops occupied Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, after which the Second Italo-Ethiopian War ended.
May 13 - General strike in Greece.
May 16 - Military coup in Bolivia.
July 11 – Austria and Nazi Germany sign a treaty that increases German influence in Austria.
July 17 - Spanish Civil War.
August 24 - In Nazi Germany, universal military duty is introduced for 2 years.
October 25 - The Berlin-Rome Axis is formalized by the Berlin Agreement between Nazi Germany and Italy.
October 30 - military coup in Iraq.
November 7 - Fights for the capital of Spain began.
November 18 - Germany and Italy declare their recognition of the Francoist government in Spain.
November 25 - Germany and Japan sign the Anti-Comintern Pact, pledging to fight together against international communism.

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